text: Byward Street is a road in the City of London, the historic and financial centre of London. It forms part of the A3211 route and, if travelling eastward, is a short continuation of Lower Thames Street from a junction with Great Tower Street, to Tower Hill. It is located within the City ward of Tower.

text: Byward

text: Street

text: is

text: road

text: in

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: the

text: historic

text: and

text: financial

text: centre

text: of

text: London

text: It

text: forms

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: route

text: and

text: if

text: travelling

text: eastward

text: is

text: short

text: continuation

text: of

text: Lower

text: Thames

text: Street

text: from

text: junction

text: with

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: to

text: Tower

text: Hill

text: It

text: is

text: located

text: within

text: the

text: City

text: ward

text: of

text: Tower

text: Eastcheap is a street in central London that is a western continuation of Great Tower Street towards Monument junction. Its name derives from "cheap", the Old English word for market, with the prefix 'East' distinguishing it from Westcheap, another former market street that today is called Cheapside.

text: Eastcheap

text: is

text: street

text: in

text: central

text: London

text: that

text: is

text: western

text: continuation

text: of

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: towards

text: Monument

text: junction

text: Its

text: name

text: derives

text: from

text: cheap

text: the

text: Old

text: English

text: word

text: for

text: market

text: with

text: the

text: prefix

text: East

text: distinguishing

text: it

text: from

text: Westcheap

text: another

text: former

text: market

text: street

text: that

text: today

text: is

text: called

text: Cheapside

text: Central London is the innermost part of London, England. There is no official definition of its area but its characteristics are understood to include a high density built environment, high land values, an elevated daytime population and a concentration of regionally, nationally and internationally significant organisations and facilities. Over time a number of definitions have been used to define the scope of central London for statistics, urban planning and local government.

text: Central

text: London

text: is

text: the

text: innermost

text: part

text: of

text: London

text: England

text: There

text: is

text: no

text: official

text: definition

text: of

text: its

text: area

text: but

text: its

text: characteristics

text: are

text: understood

text: to

text: include

text: high

text: density

text: built

text: environment

text: high

text: land

text: values

text: an

text: elevated

text: daytime

text: population

text: and

text: concentration

text: of

text: regionally

text: nationally

text: and

text: internationally

text: significant

text: organisations

text: and

text: facilities

text: Over

text: time

text: number

text: of

text: definitions

text: have

text: been

text: used

text: to

text: define

text: the

text: scope

text: of

text: central

text: London

text: for

text: statistics

text: urban

text: planning

text: and

text: local

text: government

text: The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, but the agglomeration has since grown far beyond the City's borders. The City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it forms one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London; however, the City of London is not a London borough, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including London's only other city, the City of Westminster).

text: The

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: city

text: and

text: county

text: within

text: London

text: It

text: constituted

text: most

text: of

text: London

text: from

text: its

text: settlement

text: by

text: the

text: Romans

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: AD

text: to

text: the

text: Middle

text: Ages

text: but

text: the

text: agglomeration

text: has

text: since

text: grown

text: far

text: beyond

text: the

text: City

text: 's

text: borders

text: The

text: City

text: is

text: now

text: only

text: tiny

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: metropolis

text: of

text: London

text: though

text: it

text: remains

text: notable

text: part

text: of

text: central

text: London

text: Administratively

text: it

text: forms

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: local

text: authority

text: districts

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: however

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: not

text: London

text: borough

text: status

text: reserved

text: for

text: the

text: other

text: districts

text: including

text: London

text: 's

text: only

text: other

text: city

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: Westminster

text: Great Tower Street is a street in the City of London , the historic nucleus and modern financial centre of London . It forms an eastern continuation of Eastcheap starting at Idol Lane , and leads towards Byward Street and Tower Hill . On Byward Street , opposite Great Tower Street , is the historic church All Hallows - by - the - Tower . A public house called the Czar 's Head used to stand at No. 48 , so named because Peter the Great used to drink there when he was learning shipbuilding at Deptford . Somewhere on Tower Street in 1688 , Edward Lloyd opened Lloyd 's Coffee House , where the insurance market Lloyd 's of London originated . In 1691 , Lloyd relocated his shop to nearby Lombard Street ; today Lloyd 's is based on Lime Street . Prior to boundary changes in 2003 , Great Tower Street formed the centre of the City ward of Tower . Today it lies mostly in Billingsgate ward , but a short portion of the easternmost end of the street is still within Tower ward . Great Tower Street is home to a number of restaurants and offices , including the southern entrance to the London Underwriting Centre at the corner with Mincing Lane , and Plantation Place South . It formed part of the marathon course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games . The women 's Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the men 's on 12 August . The Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September . The nearest London Underground stations are Monument and Tower Hill and the closest mainline railway station is Fenchurch Street .

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: is

text: street

text: in

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: the

text: historic

text: nucleus

text: and

text: modern

text: financial

text: centre

text: of

text: London

text: It

text: forms

text: an

text: eastern

text: continuation

text: of

text: Eastcheap

text: starting

text: at

text: Idol

text: Lane

text: and

text: leads

text: towards

text: Byward

text: Street

text: and

text: Tower

text: Hill

text: On

text: Byward

text: Street

text: opposite

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: is

text: the

text: historic

text: church

text: All

text: Hallows

text: by

text: the

text: Tower

text: public

text: house

text: called

text: the

text: Czar

text: 's

text: Head

text: used

text: to

text: stand

text: at

text: No

text: so

text: named

text: because

text: Peter

text: the

text: Great

text: used

text: to

text: drink

text: there

text: when

text: he

text: was

text: learning

text: shipbuilding

text: at

text: Deptford

text: Somewhere

text: on

text: Tower

text: Street

text: in

text: Edward

text: Lloyd

text: opened

text: Lloyd

text: 's

text: Coffee

text: House

text: where

text: the

text: insurance

text: market

text: Lloyd

text: 's

text: of

text: London

text: originated

text: In

text: Lloyd

text: relocated

text: his

text: shop

text: to

text: nearby

text: Lombard

text: Street

text: today

text: Lloyd

text: 's

text: is

text: based

text: on

text: Lime

text: Street

text: Prior

text: to

text: boundary

text: changes

text: in

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: formed

text: the

text: centre

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: ward

text: of

text: Tower

text: Today

text: it

text: lies

text: mostly

text: in

text: Billingsgate

text: ward

text: but

text: short

text: portion

text: of

text: the

text: easternmost

text: end

text: of

text: the

text: street

text: is

text: still

text: within

text: Tower

text: ward

text: Great

text: Tower

text: Street

text: is

text: home

text: to

text: number

text: of

text: restaurants

text: and

text: offices

text: including

text: the

text: southern

text: entrance

text: to

text: the

text: London

text: Underwriting

text: Centre

text: at

text: the

text: corner

text: with

text: Mincing

text: Lane

text: and

text: Plantation

text: Place

text: South

text: It

text: formed

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: marathon

text: course

text: of

text: the

text: Olympic

text: and

text: Paralympic

text: Games

text: The

text: women

text: 's

text: Olympic

text: marathon

text: took

text: place

text: on

text: August

text: and

text: the

text: men

text: 's

text: on

text: August

text: The

text: Paralympic

text: marathons

text: were

text: held

text: on

text: September

text: The

text: nearest

text: London

text: Underground

text: stations

text: are

text: Monument

text: and

text: Tower

text: Hill

text: and

text: the

text: closest

text: mainline

text: railway

text: station

text: is

text: Fenchurch

text: Street

text: London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom, as well as the most populous city proper in the European Union. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it "Londinium". London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which today largely makes up Greater London, governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.

text: London

text: is

text: the

text: capital

text: and

text: most

text: populous

text: city

text: of

text: England

text: and

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: city

text: proper

text: in

text: the

text: European

text: Union

text: Standing

text: on

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: island

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: London

text: has

text: been

text: major

text: settlement

text: for

text: two

text: millennia

text: It

text: was

text: founded

text: by

text: the

text: Romans

text: who

text: named

text: it

text: Londinium

text: London

text: 's

text: ancient

text: core

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: largely

text: retains

text: its

text: medieval

text: boundaries

text: Since

text: at

text: least

text: the

text: century

text: London

text: has

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: the

text: metropolis

text: around

text: this

text: core

text: historically

text: split

text: between

text: Middlesex

text: Essex

text: Surrey

text: Kent

text: and

text: Hertfordshire

text: which

text: today

text: largely

text: makes

text: up

text: Greater

text: London

text: governed

text: by

text: the

text: Mayor

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: the

text: London

text: Assembly

text: All Hallows-by-the-Tower, also previously dedicated to St Mary the Virgin and sometimes known as All Hallows Barking, is an ancient Anglican church on Byward Street in the City of London, overlooking the Tower of London.

text: All

text: Hallows

text: by

text: the

text: Tower

text: also

text: previously

text: dedicated

text: to

text: St

text: Mary

text: the

text: Virgin

text: and

text: sometimes

text: known

text: as

text: All

text: Hallows

text: Barking

text: is

text: an

text: ancient

text: Anglican

text: church

text: on

text: Byward

text: Street

text: in

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: overlooking

text: the

text: Tower

text: of

text: London

text: The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078, and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins), although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.

text: The

text: Tower

text: of

text: London

text: officially

text: Her

text: Majesty

text: 's

text: Royal

text: Palace

text: and

text: Fortress

text: of

text: the

text: Tower

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: historic

text: castle

text: located

text: on

text: the

text: north

text: bank

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: in

text: central

text: London

text: It

text: lies

text: within

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: separated

text: from

text: the

text: eastern

text: edge

text: of

text: the

text: square

text: mile

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: by

text: the

text: open

text: space

text: known

text: as

text: Tower

text: Hill

text: It

text: was

text: founded

text: towards

text: the

text: end

text: of

text: as

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: Norman

text: Conquest

text: of

text: England

text: The

text: White

text: Tower

text: which

text: gives

text: the

text: entire

text: castle

text: its

text: name

text: was

text: built

text: by

text: William

text: the

text: Conqueror

text: in

text: and

text: was

text: resented

text: symbol

text: of

text: oppression

text: inflicted

text: upon

text: London

text: by

text: the

text: new

text: ruling

text: elite

text: The

text: castle

text: was

text: used

text: as

text: prison

text: from

text: Ranulf

text: Flambard

text: until

text: Kray

text: twins

text: although

text: that

text: was

text: not

text: its

text: primary

text: purpose

text: grand

text: palace

text: early

text: in

text: its

text: history

text: it

text: served

text: as

text: royal

text: residence

text: As

text: whole

text: the

text: Tower

text: is

text: complex

text: of

text: several

text: buildings

text: set

text: within

text: two

text: concentric

text: rings

text: of

text: defensive

text: walls

text: and

text: moat

text: There

text: were

text: several

text: phases

text: of

text: expansion

text: mainly

text: under

text: Kings

text: Richard

text: the

text: Lionheart

text: Henry

text: III

text: and

text: Edward

text: in

text: the

text: and

text: centuries

text: The

text: general

text: layout

text: established

text: by

text: the

text: late

text: century

text: remains

text: despite

text: later

text: activity

text: on

text: the

text: site

text: The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is an area of Central and East London, England, east of the Roman and medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames. Although not defined by universally accepted formal boundaries, the River Lea can be considered the eastern boundary. For the purposes of his book, "East End Past", Richard Tames regards the area as coextensive with the London Borough of Tower Hamlets: however, he acknowledges that this narrow definition excludes parts of southern Hackney, such as Shoreditch and Hoxton, which many would regard as belonging to the East End. Others again, such as Alan Palmer, would extend the area across the Lea to include parts of the London Borough of Newham; while parts of the London Borough of Waltham Forest are also sometimes included. It is universally agreed, however, that the East End is to be distinguished from East London, which covers a much wider area.

text: The

text: East

text: End

text: of

text: London

text: also

text: known

text: simply

text: as

text: the

text: East

text: End

text: is

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: Central

text: and

text: East

text: London

text: England

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: Roman

text: and

text: medieval

text: walled

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: north

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: Although

text: not

text: defined

text: by

text: universally

text: accepted

text: formal

text: boundaries

text: the

text: River

text: Lea

text: can

text: be

text: considered

text: the

text: eastern

text: boundary

text: For

text: the

text: purposes

text: of

text: his

text: book

text: East

text: End

text: Past

text: Richard

text: Tames

text: regards

text: the

text: area

text: as

text: coextensive

text: with

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: however

text: he

text: acknowledges

text: that

text: this

text: narrow

text: definition

text: excludes

text: parts

text: of

text: southern

text: Hackney

text: such

text: as

text: Shoreditch

text: and

text: Hoxton

text: which

text: many

text: would

text: regard

text: as

text: belonging

text: to

text: the

text: East

text: End

text: Others

text: again

text: such

text: as

text: Alan

text: Palmer

text: would

text: extend

text: the

text: area

text: across

text: the

text: Lea

text: to

text: include

text: parts

text: of

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Newham

text: while

text: parts

text: of

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Waltham

text: Forest

text: are

text: also

text: sometimes

text: included

text: It

text: is

text: universally

text: agreed

text: however

text: that

text: the

text: East

text: End

text: is

text: to

text: be

text: distinguished

text: from

text: East

text: London

text: which

text: covers

text: much

text: wider

text: area

text: Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, which forms part of the A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St. Martin's Le Grand with Poultry. Near its eastern end at Bank junction, where it becomes Poultry, is Mansion House, the Bank of England, and Bank station. To the west is St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Paul's tube station and Paternoster Square.

text: Cheapside

text: is

text: street

text: in

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: the

text: historic

text: and

text: modern

text: financial

text: centre

text: of

text: London

text: which

text: forms

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: London

text: to

text: Fishguard

text: road

text: It

text: links

text: St.

text: Martin

text: 's

text: Le

text: Grand

text: with

text: Poultry

text: Near

text: its

text: eastern

text: end

text: at

text: Bank

text: junction

text: where

text: it

text: becomes

text: Poultry

text: is

text: Mansion

text: House

text: the

text: Bank

text: of

text: England

text: and

text: Bank

text: station

text: To

text: the

text: west

text: is

text: St.

text: Paul

text: 's

text: Cathedral

text: St.

text: Paul

text: 's

text: tube

text: station

text: and

text: Paternoster

text: Square

text: A borough is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term "borough" designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely.

text: borough

text: is

text: an

text: administrative

text: division

text: in

text: various

text: English

text: speaking

text: countries

text: In

text: principle

text: the

text: term

text: borough

text: designates

text: self

text: governing

text: walled

text: town

text: although

text: in

text: practice

text: official

text: use

text: of

text: the

text: term

text: varies

text: widely

text: The London Borough of Tower Hamlets is a London borough to the east of the City of London and north of the River Thames. It is in the eastern part of London and covers much of the traditional East End. It also includes much of the redeveloped Docklands region of London, including West India Docks and Canary Wharf. Many of the tallest buildings in London occupy the centre of the Isle of Dogs in the south of the borough. A part of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park is in Tower Hamlets. The borough has a population of 272,890, which includes one of the highest ethnic minority populations in the country and has an established British Bangladeshi business and residential community. Brick Lane's restaurants, neighbouring street market and shops provide the largest range of Bengali cuisine, woodwork, carpets and clothes in Europe. The local authority is Tower Hamlets London Borough Council.

text: The

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: is

text: London

text: borough

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: north

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: It

text: is

text: in

text: the

text: eastern

text: part

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: covers

text: much

text: of

text: the

text: traditional

text: East

text: End

text: It

text: also

text: includes

text: much

text: of

text: the

text: redeveloped

text: Docklands

text: region

text: of

text: London

text: including

text: West

text: India

text: Docks

text: and

text: Canary

text: Wharf

text: Many

text: of

text: the

text: tallest

text: buildings

text: in

text: London

text: occupy

text: the

text: centre

text: of

text: the

text: Isle

text: of

text: Dogs

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: of

text: the

text: borough

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: Queen

text: Elizabeth

text: Olympic

text: Park

text: is

text: in

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: The

text: borough

text: has

text: population

text: of

text: which

text: includes

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: highest

text: ethnic

text: minority

text: populations

text: in

text: the

text: country

text: and

text: has

text: an

text: established

text: British

text: Bangladeshi

text: business

text: and

text: residential

text: community

text: Brick

text: Lane

text: 's

text: restaurants

text: neighbouring

text: street

text: market

text: and

text: shops

text: provide

text: the

text: largest

text: range

text: of

text: Bengali

text: cuisine

text: woodwork

text: carpets

text: and

text: clothes

text: in

text: Europe

text: The

text: local

text: authority

text: is

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: London

text: Borough

text: Council

text: Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Westminster's concentration of visitor attractions and historic landmarks, one of the highest in London, includes the Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey and Westminster Cathedral.

text: Westminster

text: is

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: central

text: London

text: within

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: Westminster

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: West

text: End

text: on

text: the

text: north

text: bank

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: Westminster

text: 's

text: concentration

text: of

text: visitor

text: attractions

text: and

text: historic

text: landmarks

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: highest

text: in

text: London

text: includes

text: the

text: Palace

text: of

text: Westminster

text: Buckingham

text: Palace

text: Westminster

text: Abbey

text: and

text: Westminster

text: Cathedral

text: The City of Westminster is an Inner London borough which also holds city status. It occupies much of the central area of Greater London including most of the West End. It is to the west of and adjoining the ancient City of London, directly to the east of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, and its southern boundary is the River Thames. It was created with the 1965 establishment of Greater London. Upon creation, Westminster was awarded city status, which had been previously held by the smaller Metropolitan Borough of Westminster.

text: The

text: City

text: of

text: Westminster

text: is

text: an

text: Inner

text: London

text: borough

text: which

text: also

text: holds

text: city

text: status

text: It

text: occupies

text: much

text: of

text: the

text: central

text: area

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: including

text: most

text: of

text: the

text: West

text: End

text: It

text: is

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: of

text: and

text: adjoining

text: the

text: ancient

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: directly

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: Royal

text: Borough

text: of

text: Kensington

text: and

text: Chelsea

text: and

text: its

text: southern

text: boundary

text: is

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: It

text: was

text: created

text: with

text: the

text: establishment

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: Upon

text: creation

text: Westminster

text: was

text: awarded

text: city

text: status

text: which

text: had

text: been

text: previously

text: held

text: by

text: the

text: smaller

text: Metropolitan

text: Borough

text: of

text: Westminster

text: Tower Hill is an elevated spot northwest of the Tower of London, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in the East End of London, just outside the City of London boundary.

text: Tower

text: Hill

text: is

text: an

text: elevated

text: spot

text: northwest

text: of

text: the

text: Tower

text: of

text: London

text: in

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Tower

text: Hamlets

text: in

text: the

text: East

text: End

text: of

text: London

text: just

text: outside

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: boundary

text: Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, and the first Old English literary works date from the mid-7th century. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, English was replaced, for a time, as the language of the upper classes by Anglo-Norman, a relative of French, and Old English developed into the next historical form of English, known as Middle English.

text: Old

text: English

text: or

text: Anglo

text: Saxon

text: is

text: the

text: earliest

text: historical

text: form

text: of

text: the

text: English

text: language

text: spoken

text: in

text: England

text: and

text: southern

text: and

text: eastern

text: Scotland

text: in

text: the

text: early

text: Middle

text: Ages

text: It

text: was

text: brought

text: to

text: Great

text: Britain

text: by

text: Anglo

text: Saxon

text: settlers

text: probably

text: in

text: the

text: mid

text: century

text: and

text: the

text: first

text: Old

text: English

text: literary

text: works

text: date

text: from

text: the

text: century

text: After

text: the

text: Norman

text: Conquest

text: of

text: English

text: was

text: replaced

text: for

text: time

text: as

text: the

text: language

text: of

text: the

text: upper

text: classes

text: by

text: Anglo

text: Norman

text: relative

text: of

text: French

text: and

text: Old

text: English

text: developed

text: into

text: the

text: next

text: historical

text: form

text: of

text: English

text: known

text: as

text: Middle

text: English

text: In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

text: In

text: the

text: history

text: of

text: Europe

text: the

text: Middle

text: Ages

text: or

text: medieval

text: period

text: lasted

text: from

text: the

text: to

text: the

text: century

text: It

text: began

text: with

text: the

text: fall

text: of

text: the

text: Western

text: Roman

text: Empire

text: and

text: merged

text: into

text: the

text: Renaissance

text: and

text: the

text: Age

text: of

text: Discovery

text: The

text: Middle

text: Ages

text: is

text: the

text: middle

text: period

text: of

text: the

text: three

text: traditional

text: divisions

text: of

text: Western

text: history

text: classical

text: antiquity

text: the

text: medieval

text: period

text: and

text: the

text: modern

text: period

text: The

text: medieval

text: period

text: is

text: itself

text: subdivided

text: into

text: the

text: Early

text: High

text: and

text: Late

text: Middle

text: Ages

question: instance_of great tower street

answer: road

text: road

text: road


text: Richard Starkey, (born 7 July 1940), known professionally as Ringo Starr, is an English musician, singer, songwriter and actor who gained worldwide fame as the drummer for the Beatles. He occasionally sang lead vocals, usually for one song on an album, including "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Yellow Submarine" and their cover of "Act Naturally". He also wrote the Beatles' songs "Don't Pass Me By" and "Octopus's Garden", and is credited as a co-writer of others, including "What Goes On" and "Flying".

text: Richard

text: Starkey

text: born

text: July

text: known

text: professionally

text: as

text: Ringo

text: Starr

text: is

text: an

text: English

text: musician

text: singer

text: songwriter

text: and

text: actor

text: who

text: gained

text: worldwide

text: fame

text: as

text: the

text: drummer

text: for

text: the

text: Beatles

text: He

text: occasionally

text: sang

text: lead

text: vocals

text: usually

text: for

text: one

text: song

text: on

text: an

text: album

text: including

text: With

text: Little

text: Help

text: from

text: My

text: Friends

text: Yellow

text: Submarine

text: and

text: their

text: cover

text: of

text: Act

text: Naturally

text: He

text: also

text: wrote

text: the

text: Beatles

text: songs

text: Do

text: n't

text: Pass

text: Me

text: By

text: and

text: Octopus

text: 's

text: Garden

text: and

text: is

text: credited

text: as

text: co

text: writer

text: of

text: others

text: including

text: What

text: Goes

text: On

text: and

text: Flying

text: John Winston Ono Lennon, (born John Winston Lennon; 9 October 19408 December 1980) was an English singer and songwriter who co-founded the Beatles, the most commercially successful band in the history of popular music. With fellow member Paul McCartney, he formed a celebrated songwriting partnership.

text: John

text: Winston

text: Ono

text: Lennon

text: born

text: John

text: Winston

text: Lennon

text: October

text: December

text: was

text: an

text: English

text: singer

text: and

text: songwriter

text: who

text: co

text: founded

text: the

text: Beatles

text: the

text: most

text: commercially

text: successful

text: band

text: in

text: the

text: history

text: of

text: popular

text: music

text: With

text: fellow

text: member

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: he

text: formed

text: celebrated

text: songwriting

text: partnership

text: Denny Laine (born Brian Frederick Hines, 29 October 1944) is an English musician, singer, songwriter and guitarist. He was an original member of the Moody Blues, singing the band's first hit "Go Now" in 1964, and was a member of Wings with Paul McCartney from 1971 to 1981.

text: Denny

text: Laine

text: born

text: Brian

text: Frederick

text: Hines

text: October

text: is

text: an

text: English

text: musician

text: singer

text: songwriter

text: and

text: guitarist

text: He

text: was

text: an

text: original

text: member

text: of

text: the

text: Moody

text: Blues

text: singing

text: the

text: band

text: 's

text: first

text: hit

text: Go

text: Now

text: in

text: and

text: was

text: member

text: of

text: Wings

text: with

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: from

text: to

text: Peter Michael `` Mike '' McCartney ( born 7 January 1944 ) , known professionally as Mike McGear , is a British performing artist and rock photographer and the younger brother of Paul McCartney . He attended the Liverpool Institute two years behind his brother .

text: Peter

text: Michael

text: Mike

text: McCartney

text: born

text: January

text: known

text: professionally

text: as

text: Mike

text: McGear

text: is

text: British

text: performing

text: artist

text: and

text: rock

text: photographer

text: and

text: the

text: younger

text: brother

text: of

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: He

text: attended

text: the

text: Liverpool

text: Institute

text: two

text: years

text: behind

text: his

text: brother

text: The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential act of the rock era. Rooted in skiffle, beat, and 1950s rock and roll, the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles, ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock, often incorporating classical elements and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways. In the early 1960s, their enormous popularity first emerged as "Beatlemania", but as the group's music grew in sophistication, led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the counterculture of the 1960s.

text: The

text: Beatles

text: were

text: an

text: English

text: rock

text: band

text: formed

text: in

text: Liverpool

text: in

text: With

text: members

text: John

text: Lennon

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: George

text: Harrison

text: and

text: Ringo

text: Starr

text: they

text: became

text: widely

text: regarded

text: as

text: the

text: foremost

text: and

text: most

text: influential

text: act

text: of

text: the

text: rock

text: era

text: Rooted

text: in

text: skiffle

text: beat

text: and

text: rock

text: and

text: roll

text: the

text: Beatles

text: later

text: experimented

text: with

text: several

text: musical

text: styles

text: ranging

text: from

text: pop

text: ballads

text: and

text: Indian

text: music

text: to

text: psychedelia

text: and

text: hard

text: rock

text: often

text: incorporating

text: classical

text: elements

text: and

text: unconventional

text: recording

text: techniques

text: in

text: innovative

text: ways

text: In

text: the

text: early

text: their

text: enormous

text: popularity

text: first

text: emerged

text: as

text: Beatlemania

text: but

text: as

text: the

text: group

text: 's

text: music

text: grew

text: in

text: sophistication

text: led

text: by

text: primary

text: songwriters

text: Lennon

text: and

text: McCartney

text: they

text: came

text: to

text: be

text: perceived

text: as

text: an

text: embodiment

text: of

text: the

text: ideals

text: shared

text: by

text: the

text: counterculture

text: of

text: the

text: George Harrison, (25 February 1943  29 November 2001) was an English guitarist, singer, songwriter, and music and film producer who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist of the Beatles. Often referred to as "the quiet Beatle", Harrison embraced Hindu mythology and helped broaden the horizons of his fellow Beatles as well as their Western audience by incorporating Indian instrumentation in their music. Although most of the Beatles' songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions. His songs for the group included "Taxman", "Within You Without You", "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", "Here Comes the Sun" and "Something", the last of which became the Beatles' second-most covered song.

text: George

text: Harrison

text: February

text: November

text: was

text: an

text: English

text: guitarist

text: singer

text: songwriter

text: and

text: music

text: and

text: film

text: producer

text: who

text: achieved

text: international

text: fame

text: as

text: the

text: lead

text: guitarist

text: of

text: the

text: Beatles

text: Often

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: the

text: quiet

text: Beatle

text: Harrison

text: embraced

text: Hindu

text: mythology

text: and

text: helped

text: broaden

text: the

text: horizons

text: of

text: his

text: fellow

text: Beatles

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: their

text: Western

text: audience

text: by

text: incorporating

text: Indian

text: instrumentation

text: in

text: their

text: music

text: Although

text: most

text: of

text: the

text: Beatles

text: songs

text: were

text: written

text: by

text: John

text: Lennon

text: and

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: most

text: Beatles

text: albums

text: from

text: onwards

text: contained

text: at

text: least

text: two

text: Harrison

text: compositions

text: His

text: songs

text: for

text: the

text: group

text: included

text: Taxman

text: Within

text: You

text: Without

text: You

text: While

text: My

text: Guitar

text: Gently

text: Weeps

text: Here

text: Comes

text: the

text: Sun

text: and

text: Something

text: the

text: last

text: of

text: which

text: became

text: the

text: Beatles

text: second

text: most

text: covered

text: song

text: Sir James Paul McCartney, (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer. With John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, he gained worldwide fame with the rock band the Beatles, largely considered the most popular and influential group in the history of pop music. His songwriting partnership with Lennon is the most celebrated of the post-war era. After the band's break-up, he pursued a solo career and formed the band Wings with his first wife, Linda, and Denny Laine.

text: Sir

text: James

text: Paul

text: McCartney

text: born

text: June

text: is

text: an

text: English

text: singer

text: songwriter

text: multi

text: instrumentalist

text: and

text: composer

text: With

text: John

text: Lennon

text: George

text: Harrison

text: and

text: Ringo

text: Starr

text: he

text: gained

text: worldwide

text: fame

text: with

text: the

text: rock

text: band

text: the

text: Beatles

text: largely

text: considered

text: the

text: most

text: popular

text: and

text: influential

text: group

text: in

text: the

text: history

text: of

text: pop

text: music

text: His

text: songwriting

text: partnership

text: with

text: Lennon

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: celebrated

text: of

text: the

text: post

text: war

text: era

text: After

text: the

text: band

text: 's

text: break

text: up

text: he

text: pursued

text: solo

text: career

text: and

text: formed

text: the

text: band

text: Wings

text: with

text: his

text: first

text: wife

text: Linda

text: and

text: Denny

text: Laine

annotations: follows multiple

annotations: follows single

question: occupation mike mcgear

answer: musician

text: musician

text: musician


text: Warsaw (; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a greater metropolitan area of 3.105 million residents, which makes Warsaw the 9th most-populous capital city in the European Union. The city limits cover , while the metropolitan area covers .

text: Warsaw

text: see

text: also

text: other

text: names

text: is

text: the

text: capital

text: and

text: largest

text: city

text: of

text: Poland

text: It

text: stands

text: on

text: the

text: Vistula

text: River

text: in

text: east

text: central

text: Poland

text: roughly

text: from

text: the

text: Baltic

text: Sea

text: and

text: from

text: the

text: Carpathian

text: Mountains

text: Its

text: population

text: is

text: estimated

text: at

text: million

text: residents

text: within

text: greater

text: metropolitan

text: area

text: of

text: million

text: residents

text: which

text: makes

text: Warsaw

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: capital

text: city

text: in

text: the

text: European

text: Union

text: The

text: city

text: limits

text: cover

text: while

text: the

text: metropolitan

text: area

text: covers

text: Total war is warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, mobilizes all of the resources of society to fight the war, and gives priority to warfare over non-combatant needs. The American-English Dictionary defines total war as "war that is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved, or the objectives pursued, especially one in which the laws of war are disregarded."

text: Total

text: war

text: is

text: warfare

text: that

text: includes

text: any

text: and

text: all

text: civilian

text: associated

text: resources

text: and

text: infrastructure

text: as

text: legitimate

text: military

text: targets

text: mobilizes

text: all

text: of

text: the

text: resources

text: of

text: society

text: to

text: fight

text: the

text: war

text: and

text: gives

text: priority

text: to

text: warfare

text: over

text: non

text: combatant

text: needs

text: The

text: American

text: English

text: Dictionary

text: defines

text: total

text: war

text: as

text: war

text: that

text: is

text: unrestricted

text: in

text: terms

text: of

text: the

text: weapons

text: used

text: the

text: territory

text: or

text: combatants

text: involved

text: or

text: the

text: objectives

text: pursued

text: especially

text: one

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: laws

text: of

text: war

text: are

text: disregarded

text: The Warsaw Uprising was a major World War II operation by the Polish resistance Home Army to liberate Warsaw from German occupation. The uprising was timed to coincide with the Soviet Union's Red Army approaching the eastern suburbs of the city and the retreat of German forces. However, the Soviet advance stopped short, enabling the Germans to regroup and demolish the city while defeating the Polish resistance, which fought for 63 days with little outside support. The Uprising was the largest single military effort taken by any European resistance movement during World War II.

text: The

text: Warsaw

text: Uprising

text: was

text: major

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: operation

text: by

text: the

text: Polish

text: resistance

text: Home

text: Army

text: to

text: liberate

text: Warsaw

text: from

text: German

text: occupation

text: The

text: uprising

text: was

text: timed

text: to

text: coincide

text: with

text: the

text: Soviet

text: Union

text: 's

text: Red

text: Army

text: approaching

text: the

text: eastern

text: suburbs

text: of

text: the

text: city

text: and

text: the

text: retreat

text: of

text: German

text: forces

text: However

text: the

text: Soviet

text: advance

text: stopped

text: short

text: enabling

text: the

text: Germans

text: to

text: regroup

text: and

text: demolish

text: the

text: city

text: while

text: defeating

text: the

text: Polish

text: resistance

text: which

text: fought

text: for

text: days

text: with

text: little

text: outside

text: support

text: The

text: Uprising

text: was

text: the

text: largest

text: single

text: military

text: effort

text: taken

text: by

text: any

text: European

text: resistance

text: movement

text: during

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nationsincluding all of the great powerseventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (in which approximately one million were killed, and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: often

text: abbreviated

text: to

text: WWII

text: or

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: Second

text: World

text: War

text: was

text: global

text: war

text: that

text: lasted

text: from

text: to

text: although

text: related

text: conflicts

text: began

text: earlier

text: It

text: involved

text: the

text: vast

text: majority

text: of

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: nationsincluding

text: all

text: of

text: the

text: great

text: powerseventually

text: forming

text: two

text: opposing

text: military

text: alliances

text: the

text: Allies

text: and

text: the

text: Axis

text: It

text: was

text: the

text: most

text: widespread

text: war

text: in

text: history

text: and

text: directly

text: involved

text: more

text: than

text: million

text: people

text: from

text: over

text: countries

text: In

text: state

text: of

text: total

text: war

text: the

text: major

text: participants

text: threw

text: their

text: entire

text: economic

text: industrial

text: and

text: scientific

text: capabilities

text: behind

text: the

text: war

text: effort

text: erasing

text: the

text: distinction

text: between

text: civilian

text: and

text: military

text: resources

text: Marked

text: by

text: mass

text: deaths

text: of

text: civilians

text: including

text: the

text: Holocaust

text: in

text: which

text: approximately

text: million

text: people

text: were

text: killed

text: and

text: the

text: strategic

text: bombing

text: of

text: industrial

text: and

text: population

text: centres

text: in

text: which

text: approximately

text: one

text: million

text: were

text: killed

text: and

text: which

text: included

text: the

text: atomic

text: bombings

text: of

text: Hiroshima

text: and

text: Nagasaki

text: it

text: resulted

text: in

text: an

text: estimated

text: million

text: to

text: million

text: fatalities

text: These

text: made

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: the

text: deadliest

text: conflict

text: in

text: human

text: history

text: During World War II, the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made Nagasaki the second and, to date, last city in the world to experience a nuclear attack.

text: During

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: the

text: American

text: atomic

text: bombings

text: of

text: Hiroshima

text: and

text: Nagasaki

text: made

text: Nagasaki

text: the

text: second

text: and

text: to

text: date

text: last

text: city

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: to

text: experience

text: nuclear

text: attack

text: The Holocaust (from the Greek ': "hólos", "whole" and "kaustós", "burnt"), also referred to as the Shoah"' (Hebrew: , "HaShoah", "the catastrophe"), was a genocide in which Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany and its collaborators killed about six million Jews. The victims included 1.5 million children and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe. Some definitions of the Holocaust include the additional five million non-Jewish victims of Nazi mass murders, bringing the total to about 11 million. Killings took place throughout Nazi Germany, German-occupied territories, and territories held by allies of Nazi Germany.

text: The

text: Holocaust

text: from

text: the

text: Greek

text: hólos

text: whole

text: and

text: kaustós

text: burnt

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: the

text: Shoah

text: Hebrew

text: HaShoah

text: the

text: catastrophe

text: was

text: genocide

text: in

text: which

text: Adolf

text: Hitler

text: 's

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: and

text: its

text: collaborators

text: killed

text: about

text: six

text: million

text: Jews

text: The

text: victims

text: included

text: million

text: children

text: and

text: represented

text: about

text: two

text: thirds

text: of

text: the

text: nine

text: million

text: Jews

text: who

text: had

text: resided

text: in

text: Europe

text: Some

text: definitions

text: of

text: the

text: Holocaust

text: include

text: the

text: additional

text: five

text: million

text: non

text: Jewish

text: victims

text: of

text: Nazi

text: mass

text: murders

text: bringing

text: the

text: total

text: to

text: about

text: million

text: Killings

text: took

text: place

text: throughout

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: German

text: occupied

text: territories

text: and

text: territories

text: held

text: by

text: allies

text: of

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, during the final stage of World War II. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history.

text: The

text: United

text: States

text: dropped

text: nuclear

text: weapons

text: on

text: the

text: Japanese

text: cities

text: of

text: Hiroshima

text: and

text: Nagasaki

text: on

text: August

text: and

text: respectively

text: during

text: the

text: final

text: stage

text: of

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: The

text: United

text: States

text: had

text: dropped

text: the

text: bombs

text: with

text: the

text: consent

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: as

text: outlined

text: in

text: the

text: Quebec

text: Agreement

text: The

text: two

text: bombings

text: which

text: killed

text: at

text: least

text: people

text: remain

text: the

text: only

text: use

text: of

text: nuclear

text: weapons

text: for

text: warfare

text: in

text: history

text: The Home Army (abbreviated AK) was the dominant Polish resistance movement in Poland occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II. It was formed in February 1942 from the "Zwizek Walki Zbrojnej" (Armed Resistance). Over the next two years, it absorbed most other Polish underground forces. Its allegiance was to the Polish Government-in-Exile, and it constituted the armed wing of what became known as the "Polish Underground State".

text: The

text: Home

text: Army

text: abbreviated

text: AK

text: was

text: the

text: dominant

text: Polish

text: resistance

text: movement

text: in

text: Poland

text: occupied

text: by

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: and

text: the

text: Soviet

text: Union

text: during

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: It

text: was

text: formed

text: in

text: February

text: from

text: the

text: Zwizek

text: Walki

text: Zbrojnej

text: Armed

text: Resistance

text: Over

text: the

text: next

text: two

text: years

text: it

text: absorbed

text: most

text: other

text: Polish

text: underground

text: forces

text: Its

text: allegiance

text: was

text: to

text: the

text: Polish

text: Government

text: in

text: Exile

text: and

text: it

text: constituted

text: the

text: armed

text: wing

text: of

text: what

text: became

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: Polish

text: Underground

text: State

text: Barbara Kostrzewska ( 1915 -- 1986 ) was a Polish singer and theater director . She performed from late 1930s until after the war , when she became involved in managing several theaters . During World War II she worked for Polish resistance Armia Krajowa and took part in the Warsaw Uprising . She starred in the 1951 film Warsaw Premiere .

text: Barbara

text: Kostrzewska

text: was

text: Polish

text: singer

text: and

text: theater

text: director

text: She

text: performed

text: from

text: late

text: until

text: after

text: the

text: war

text: when

text: she

text: became

text: involved

text: in

text: managing

text: several

text: theaters

text: During

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: she

text: worked

text: for

text: Polish

text: resistance

text: Armia

text: Krajowa

text: and

text: took

text: part

text: in

text: the

text: Warsaw

text: Uprising

text: She

text: starred

text: in

text: the

text: film

text: Warsaw

text: Premiere

text: The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (: RKKA, frequently shortened in Russian to ; KA, in English: Red Army also in critical literature and folklore of that epoch - Red Horde, Army of Work) was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution (Red October or Bolshevik Revolution). The Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations (especially the various groups collectively known as the White Army) of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. Beginning in February 1946, the Red Army, along with the Soviet Navy, embodied the main component of the Soviet Armed Forces; taking the official name of "Soviet Army", until its dissolution in December 1991.

text: The

text: Workers

text: and

text: Peasants

text: Red

text: Army

text: RKKA

text: frequently

text: shortened

text: in

text: Russian

text: to

text: KA

text: in

text: English

text: Red

text: Army

text: also

text: in

text: critical

text: literature

text: and

text: folklore

text: of

text: that

text: epoch

text: Red

text: Horde

text: Army

text: of

text: Work

text: was

text: the

text: army

text: and

text: the

text: air

text: force

text: of

text: the

text: Russian

text: Soviet

text: Federative

text: Socialist

text: Republic

text: and

text: after

text: the

text: Union

text: of

text: Soviet

text: Socialist

text: Republics

text: The

text: army

text: was

text: established

text: immediately

text: after

text: the

text: October

text: Revolution

text: Red

text: October

text: or

text: Bolshevik

text: Revolution

text: The

text: Bolsheviks

text: raised

text: an

text: army

text: to

text: oppose

text: the

text: military

text: confederations

text: especially

text: the

text: various

text: groups

text: collectively

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: White

text: Army

text: of

text: their

text: adversaries

text: during

text: the

text: Russian

text: Civil

text: War

text: Beginning

text: in

text: February

text: the

text: Red

text: Army

text: along

text: with

text: the

text: Soviet

text: Navy

text: embodied

text: the

text: main

text: component

text: of

text: the

text: Soviet

text: Armed

text: Forces

text: taking

text: the

text: official

text: name

text: of

text: Soviet

text: Army

text: until

text: its

text: dissolution

text: in

text: December

text: The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR " ) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. A union of multiple subnational republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. The Soviet Union was a one-party federation, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital.

text: The

text: Soviet

text: Union

text: officially

text: the

text: Union

text: of

text: Soviet

text: Socialist

text: Republics

text: USSR

text: was

text: socialist

text: state

text: in

text: Eurasia

text: that

text: existed

text: from

text: to

text: union

text: of

text: multiple

text: subnational

text: republics

text: its

text: government

text: and

text: economy

text: were

text: highly

text: centralized

text: The

text: Soviet

text: Union

text: was

text: one

text: party

text: federation

text: governed

text: by

text: the

text: Communist

text: Party

text: with

text: Moscow

text: as

text: its

text: capital

candidates: russian soviet federative socialist republic

question: country_of_citizenship barbara kostrzewska

answer: poland

text: poland

text: poland

text: poland


text: South India is the area encompassing the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Telangana as well as the union territories of Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and Puducherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse with two mountain ranges - the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland. Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non-perennial sources of water. Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas.

text: South

text: India

text: is

text: the

text: area

text: encompassing

text: the

text: Indian

text: states

text: of

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: Andhra

text: Pradesh

text: Karnataka

text: Kerala

text: and

text: Telangana

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: the

text: union

text: territories

text: of

text: Andaman

text: and

text: Nicobar

text: Lakshadweep

text: and

text: Puducherry

text: occupying

text: of

text: India

text: 's

text: area

text: Covering

text: the

text: southern

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: peninsular

text: Deccan

text: Plateau

text: South

text: India

text: is

text: bounded

text: by

text: the

text: Bay

text: of

text: Bengal

text: in

text: the

text: east

text: the

text: Arabian

text: Sea

text: in

text: the

text: west

text: and

text: the

text: Indian

text: Ocean

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: The

text: geography

text: of

text: the

text: region

text: is

text: diverse

text: with

text: two

text: mountain

text: ranges

text: the

text: Western

text: and

text: Eastern

text: Ghats

text: bordering

text: the

text: plateau

text: heartland

text: Godavari

text: Krishna

text: Kaveri

text: Tungabhadra

text: and

text: Vaigai

text: rivers

text: are

text: important

text: non

text: perennial

text: sources

text: of

text: water

text: Bangalore

text: Chennai

text: Hyderabad

text: Visakhapatnam

text: Vijayawada

text: Coimbatore

text: and

text: Kochi

text: are

text: the

text: largest

text: urban

text: areas

text: The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, India, which included among its members: Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (15591632). In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts. Their most important resultsseries expansion for trigonometric functionswere described in Sanskrit verse in a book by Neelakanta called "Tantrasangraha", and again in a commentary on this work, called "Tantrasangraha-vakhya", of unknown authorship. The theorems were stated without proof, but proofs for the series for sine, cosine, and inverse tangent were provided a century later in the work "Yuktibhasa", written in Malayalam, by Jyesthadeva, and also in a commentary on "Tantrasangraha".

text: The

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: was

text: school

text: of

text: mathematics

text: and

text: astronomy

text: founded

text: by

text: Madhava

text: of

text: Sangamagrama

text: in

text: Kerala

text: India

text: which

text: included

text: among

text: its

text: members

text: Parameshvara

text: Neelakanta

text: Somayaji

text: Jyeshtadeva

text: Achyuta

text: Pisharati

text: Melpathur

text: Narayana

text: Bhattathiri

text: and

text: Achyuta

text: Panikkar

text: The

text: school

text: flourished

text: between

text: the

text: and

text: centuries

text: and

text: the

text: original

text: discoveries

text: of

text: the

text: school

text: seems

text: to

text: have

text: ended

text: with

text: Narayana

text: Bhattathiri

text: In

text: attempting

text: to

text: solve

text: astronomical

text: problems

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: independently

text: created

text: number

text: of

text: important

text: mathematics

text: concepts

text: Their

text: most

text: important

text: resultsseries

text: expansion

text: for

text: trigonometric

text: functionswere

text: described

text: in

text: Sanskrit

text: verse

text: in

text: book

text: by

text: Neelakanta

text: called

text: Tantrasangraha

text: and

text: again

text: in

text: commentary

text: on

text: this

text: work

text: called

text: Tantrasangraha

text: vakhya

text: of

text: unknown

text: authorship

text: The

text: theorems

text: were

text: stated

text: without

text: proof

text: but

text: proofs

text: for

text: the

text: series

text: for

text: sine

text: cosine

text: and

text: inverse

text: tangent

text: were

text: provided

text: century

text: later

text: in

text: the

text: work

text: Yuktibhasa

text: written

text: in

text: Malayalam

text: by

text: Jyesthadeva

text: and

text: also

text: in

text: commentary

text: on

text: Tantrasangraha

text: Lakshadweep (, Lakshadb), formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands, is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea, off the south western coast of India. The archipelago is a Union Territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. They were also known as Laccadive Islands, although geographically this is only the name of the central subgroup of the group. "Lakshadweep" comes from "Lakshadweepa", which means "one hundred thousand islands" in Sanskrit. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India: their total surface area is just . The lagoon area covers about , the territorial waters area and the exclusive economic zone area . The region forms a single Indian district with ten sub divisions. Kavaratti serves as the capital of the Union Territory and the region comes under the jurisdiction of Kerala High Court. The islands are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge.

text: Lakshadweep

text: Lakshadb

text: formerly

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: Laccadive

text: Minicoy

text: and

text: Aminidivi

text: Islands

text: is

text: group

text: of

text: islands

text: in

text: the

text: Laccadive

text: Sea

text: off

text: the

text: south

text: western

text: coast

text: of

text: India

text: The

text: archipelago

text: is

text: Union

text: Territory

text: and

text: is

text: governed

text: by

text: the

text: Union

text: Government

text: of

text: India

text: They

text: were

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: Laccadive

text: Islands

text: although

text: geographically

text: this

text: is

text: only

text: the

text: name

text: of

text: the

text: central

text: subgroup

text: of

text: the

text: group

text: Lakshadweep

text: comes

text: from

text: Lakshadweepa

text: which

text: means

text: one

text: hundred

text: thousand

text: islands

text: in

text: Sanskrit

text: The

text: islands

text: form

text: the

text: smallest

text: Union

text: Territory

text: of

text: India

text: their

text: total

text: surface

text: area

text: is

text: just

text: The

text: lagoon

text: area

text: covers

text: about

text: the

text: territorial

text: waters

text: area

text: and

text: the

text: exclusive

text: economic

text: zone

text: area

text: The

text: region

text: forms

text: single

text: Indian

text: district

text: with

text: ten

text: sub

text: divisions

text: Kavaratti

text: serves

text: as

text: the

text: capital

text: of

text: the

text: Union

text: Territory

text: and

text: the

text: region

text: comes

text: under

text: the

text: jurisdiction

text: of

text: Kerala

text: High

text: Court

text: The

text: islands

text: are

text: the

text: northernmost

text: of

text: the

text: Lakshadweep

text: Maldives

text: Chagos

text: group

text: of

text: islands

text: which

text: are

text: the

text: tops

text: of

text: vast

text: undersea

text: mountain

text: range

text: the

text: Chagos

text: Laccadive

text: Ridge

text: Sanskrit (English pronunciation:; written in Devanagari script ; : or ', originally ', "refined speech") is the primary sacred language of Hinduism and "Mahyna" Buddhism, a philosophical language in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It was also a literary language that was in use as a "lingua franca" in ancient and medieval South Asia. It is a standardised dialect of Old Indo-Aryan, originating as Vedic Sanskrit and tracing its linguistic ancestry back to Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Indo-European. Today it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand. As one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies.

text: Sanskrit

text: English

text: pronunciation

text: written

text: in

text: Devanagari

text: script

text: or

text: originally

text: refined

text: speech

text: is

text: the

text: primary

text: sacred

text: language

text: of

text: Hinduism

text: and

text: Mahyna

text: Buddhism

text: philosophical

text: language

text: in

text: Hinduism

text: Jainism

text: Buddhism

text: and

text: Sikhism

text: It

text: was

text: also

text: literary

text: language

text: that

text: was

text: in

text: use

text: as

text: lingua

text: franca

text: in

text: ancient

text: and

text: medieval

text: South

text: Asia

text: It

text: is

text: standardised

text: dialect

text: of

text: Old

text: Indo

text: Aryan

text: originating

text: as

text: Vedic

text: Sanskrit

text: and

text: tracing

text: its

text: linguistic

text: ancestry

text: back

text: to

text: Proto

text: Indo

text: Iranian

text: and

text: Proto

text: Indo

text: European

text: Today

text: it

text: is

text: listed

text: as

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: scheduled

text: languages

text: of

text: India

text: and

text: is

text: an

text: official

text: language

text: of

text: the

text: state

text: of

text: Uttarakhand

text: As

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: oldest

text: Indo

text: European

text: languages

text: for

text: which

text: substantial

text: written

text: documentation

text: exists

text: Sanskrit

text: holds

text: prominent

text: position

text: in

text: Indo

text: European

text: studies

text: Mathematics (from Greek  "máthma", knowledge, study, learning) is the study of topics such as quantity (numbers), structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics.

text: Mathematics

text: from

text: Greek

text: máthma

text: knowledge

text: study

text: learning

text: is

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: topics

text: such

text: as

text: quantity

text: numbers

text: structure

text: space

text: and

text: change

text: There

text: is

text: range

text: of

text: views

text: among

text: mathematicians

text: and

text: philosophers

text: as

text: to

text: the

text: exact

text: scope

text: and

text: definition

text: of

text: mathematics

text: Yuktibh ("Rationale in the Malayalam/Sanskrit language") also known as Gaitanyyasagraha ("Compendium of astronomical rationale"), is a major treatise on mathematics and astronomy, written by Indian astronomer Jyesthadeva of the Kerala school of mathematics in about AD 1530. The treatise is a consolidation of the discoveries by Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji, Parameshvara, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati and other astronomer-mathematicians of the Kerala school. "Yuktibhasa" is mainly based on Nilakantha's "Tantra Samgraha". It is considered an early text on the foundations of calculus and predates those of European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Newton by many centuries. However, the treatise was largely unnoticed beyond Kerala, as the book was written in the local language of Malayalam. However, both Oxford University and Royal Society of Great Britain have accepted that Calculus and many such pioneering mathematical theorems originated in India. Sadly, mainstream Western and even Western educated Indians are largely unaware of these and references in textbooks are absent.

text: Yuktibh

text: Rationale

text: in

text: the

text: Malayalam

text: Sanskrit

text: language

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: Gaitanyyasagraha

text: Compendium

text: of

text: astronomical

text: rationale

text: is

text: major

text: treatise

text: on

text: mathematics

text: and

text: astronomy

text: written

text: by

text: Indian

text: astronomer

text: Jyesthadeva

text: of

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: mathematics

text: in

text: about

text: AD

text: The

text: treatise

text: is

text: consolidation

text: of

text: the

text: discoveries

text: by

text: Madhava

text: of

text: Sangamagrama

text: Nilakantha

text: Somayaji

text: Parameshvara

text: Jyeshtadeva

text: Achyuta

text: Pisharati

text: and

text: other

text: astronomer

text: mathematicians

text: of

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: Yuktibhasa

text: is

text: mainly

text: based

text: on

text: Nilakantha

text: 's

text: Tantra

text: Samgraha

text: It

text: is

text: considered

text: an

text: early

text: text

text: on

text: the

text: foundations

text: of

text: calculus

text: and

text: predates

text: those

text: of

text: European

text: mathematicians

text: such

text: as

text: James

text: Gregory

text: and

text: Newton

text: by

text: many

text: centuries

text: However

text: the

text: treatise

text: was

text: largely

text: unnoticed

text: beyond

text: Kerala

text: as

text: the

text: book

text: was

text: written

text: in

text: the

text: local

text: language

text: of

text: Malayalam

text: However

text: both

text: Oxford

text: University

text: and

text: Royal

text: Society

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: have

text: accepted

text: that

text: Calculus

text: and

text: many

text: such

text: pioneering

text: mathematical

text: theorems

text: originated

text: in

text: India

text: Sadly

text: mainstream

text: Western

text: and

text: even

text: Western

text: educated

text: Indians

text: are

text: largely

text: unaware

text: of

text: these

text: and

text: references

text: in

text: textbooks

text: are

text: absent

text: Karnataka (IPA:) is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed "Karnataka" in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore (Bengaluru). Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Telangana to the northeast, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of , or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area. With 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the classical languages of India, is the most widely spoken and official language of the state.

text: Karnataka

text: IPA

text: is

text: state

text: in

text: south

text: western

text: region

text: of

text: India

text: It

text: was

text: formed

text: on

text: November

text: with

text: the

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: States

text: Reorganisation

text: Act

text: Originally

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: State

text: of

text: Mysore

text: it

text: was

text: renamed

text: Karnataka

text: in

text: The

text: capital

text: and

text: largest

text: city

text: is

text: Bangalore

text: Bengaluru

text: Karnataka

text: is

text: bordered

text: by

text: the

text: Arabian

text: Sea

text: and

text: the

text: Laccadive

text: Sea

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: Goa

text: to

text: the

text: northwest

text: Maharashtra

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: Telangana

text: to

text: the

text: northeast

text: Andhra

text: Pradesh

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: to

text: the

text: southeast

text: and

text: Kerala

text: to

text: the

text: southwest

text: The

text: state

text: covers

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: or

text: percent

text: of

text: the

text: total

text: geographical

text: area

text: of

text: India

text: It

text: is

text: the

text: seventh

text: largest

text: Indian

text: state

text: by

text: area

text: With

text: inhabitants

text: at

text: the

text: census

text: Karnataka

text: is

text: the

text: eighth

text: largest

text: state

text: by

text: population

text: comprising

text: districts

text: Kannada

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: classical

text: languages

text: of

text: India

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: widely

text: spoken

text: and

text: official

text: language

text: of

text: the

text: state

text: Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571  November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works "Astronomia nova", "Harmonices Mundi", and "Epitome of Copernican Astronomy". These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

text: Johannes

text: Kepler

text: December

text: November

text: was

text: German

text: mathematician

text: astronomer

text: and

text: astrologer

text: key

text: figure

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: scientific

text: revolution

text: he

text: is

text: best

text: known

text: for

text: his

text: laws

text: of

text: planetary

text: motion

text: based

text: on

text: his

text: works

text: Astronomia

text: nova

text: Harmonices

text: Mundi

text: and

text: Epitome

text: of

text: Copernican

text: Astronomy

text: These

text: works

text: also

text: provided

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: foundations

text: for

text: Isaac

text: Newton

text: 's

text: theory

text: of

text: universal

text: gravitation

text:
Tantrasamgraha, or Tantrasangraha, (literally, "A Compilation of the System") is an important astronomical treatise written by Nilakantha Somayaji, an astronomer/mathematician belonging to the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
The treatise was completed in 1501 CE. It consists of 432 verses in Sanskrit divided into eight chapters. Tantrasamgraha had spawned a few commentaries: "Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya" of anonymous authorship and "Yuktibh" authored by Jyeshtadeva in about 1550 CE.
Tantrasangraha, together with its commentaries, bring forth the depths of the mathematical accomplishments the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in particular the achievements of the remarkable mathematician of the school Sangamagrama Madhava.
In his "Tantrasangraha", Nilakantha revised Aryabhata's model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.

text: Tantrasamgraha

text: or

text: Tantrasangraha

text: literally

text: Compilation

text: of

text: the

text: System

text: is

text: an

text: important

text: astronomical

text: treatise

text: written

text: by

text: Nilakantha

text: Somayaji

text: an

text: astronomer

text: mathematician

text: belonging

text: to

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: The

text: treatise

text: was

text: completed

text: in

text: CE

text: It

text: consists

text: of

text: verses

text: in

text: Sanskrit

text: divided

text: into

text: eight

text: chapters

text: Tantrasamgraha

text: had

text: spawned

text: few

text: commentaries

text: Tantrasamgraha

text: vyakhya

text: of

text: anonymous

text: authorship

text: and

text: Yuktibh

text: authored

text: by

text: Jyeshtadeva

text: in

text: about

text: CE

text: Tantrasangraha

text: together

text: with

text: its

text: commentaries

text: bring

text: forth

text: the

text: depths

text: of

text: the

text: mathematical

text: accomplishments

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: in

text: particular

text: the

text: achievements

text: of

text: the

text: remarkable

text: mathematician

text: of

text: the

text: school

text: Sangamagrama

text: Madhava

text: In

text: his

text: Tantrasangraha

text: Nilakantha

text: revised

text: Aryabhata

text: 's

text: model

text: for

text: the

text: planets

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Venus

text: His

text: equation

text: of

text: the

text: centre

text: for

text: these

text: planets

text: remained

text: the

text: most

text: accurate

text: until

text: the

text: time

text: of

text: Johannes

text: Kepler

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: Malayalam is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013. It was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people. Malayalam is also spoken in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka; with significant speakers in the Nilgiris, Kanyakumari and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, and Dakshina Kannada of Karnataka.

text: Malayalam

text: is

text: language

text: spoken

text: in

text: India

text: predominantly

text: in

text: the

text: state

text: of

text: Kerala

text: It

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: scheduled

text: languages

text: of

text: India

text: and

text: was

text: designated

text: as

text: Classical

text: Language

text: in

text: India

text: in

text: It

text: was

text: developed

text: to

text: the

text: current

text: form

text: mainly

text: by

text: the

text: influence

text: of

text: the

text: poet

text: Thunchaththu

text: Ezhuthachan

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: Malayalam

text: has

text: official

text: language

text: status

text: in

text: the

text: state

text: of

text: Kerala

text: and

text: in

text: the

text: union

text: territories

text: of

text: Lakshadweep

text: and

text: Puducherry

text: It

text: belongs

text: to

text: the

text: Dravidian

text: family

text: of

text: languages

text: and

text: is

text: spoken

text: by

text: some

text: million

text: people

text: Malayalam

text: is

text: also

text: spoken

text: in

text: the

text: neighboring

text: states

text: of

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: and

text: Karnataka

text: with

text: significant

text: speakers

text: in

text: the

text: Nilgiris

text: Kanyakumari

text: and

text: Coimbatore

text: districts

text: of

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: and

text: Dakshina

text: Kannada

text: of

text: Karnataka

text: Kerala, historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions. Spread over , it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Kerala is the thirteenth-largest state by population and is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.

text: Kerala

text: historically

text: known

text: as

text: Keralam

text: is

text: an

text: Indian

text: state

text: in

text: South

text: India

text: on

text: the

text: Malabar

text: coast

text: It

text: was

text: formed

text: on

text: November

text: following

text: the

text: States

text: Reorganisation

text: Act

text: by

text: combining

text: Malayalam

text: speaking

text: regions

text: Spread

text: over

text: it

text: is

text: bordered

text: by

text: Karnataka

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: and

text: northeast

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: and

text: south

text: and

text: the

text: Lakshadweep

text: Sea

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: With

text: inhabitants

text: as

text: per

text: the

text: Census

text: Kerala

text: is

text: the

text: thirteenth

text: largest

text: state

text: by

text: population

text: and

text: is

text: divided

text: into

text: districts

text: with

text: the

text: capital

text: being

text: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Malayalam

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: widely

text: spoken

text: language

text: and

text: is

text: also

text: the

text: official

text: language

text: of

text: the

text: state

text: Arabic (' or ' ) is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the "lingua franca" of the Arab world. Arabic also is a liturgical language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, and from northwestern Arabia to the Sinai in the south.

text: Arabic

text: or

text: is

text: Central

text: Semitic

text: language

text: that

text: was

text: first

text: spoken

text: in

text: Iron

text: Age

text: northwestern

text: Arabia

text: and

text: is

text: now

text: the

text: lingua

text: franca

text: of

text: the

text: Arab

text: world

text: Arabic

text: also

text: is

text: liturgical

text: language

text: of

text: billion

text: Muslims

text: It

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: six

text: official

text: languages

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: Nations

text: It

text: is

text: named

text: after

text: the

text: Arabs

text: term

text: initially

text: used

text: to

text: describe

text: peoples

text: living

text: from

text: Mesopotamia

text: in

text: the

text: east

text: to

text: the

text: Anti

text: Lebanon

text: mountains

text: in

text: the

text: west

text: and

text: from

text: northwestern

text: Arabia

text: to

text: the

text: Sinai

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: Tamil Nadu (English pronunciation:  ; ""; : ; literally 'The Land of Tamils' or 'Tamil Country') is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai (formerly known as Madras). Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bounded by the Eastern Ghats on the north, by the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait on the southeast, and by the Indian Ocean on the south. The state shares a maritime border with the nation of Sri Lanka.

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: English

text: pronunciation

text: literally

text: The

text: Land

text: of

text: Tamils

text: or

text: Tamil

text: Country

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: states

text: of

text: India

text: Its

text: capital

text: and

text: largest

text: city

text: is

text: Chennai

text: formerly

text: known

text: as

text: Madras

text: Tamil

text: Nadu

text: lies

text: in

text: the

text: southernmost

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: Indian

text: Peninsula

text: and

text: is

text: bordered

text: by

text: the

text: union

text: territory

text: of

text: Puducherry

text: and

text: the

text: South

text: Indian

text: states

text: of

text: Kerala

text: Karnataka

text: and

text: Andhra

text: Pradesh

text: It

text: is

text: bounded

text: by

text: the

text: Eastern

text: Ghats

text: on

text: the

text: north

text: by

text: the

text: Nilgiri

text: the

text: Anamalai

text: Hills

text: and

text: Kerala

text: on

text: the

text: west

text: by

text: the

text: Bay

text: of

text: Bengal

text: in

text: the

text: east

text: by

text: the

text: Gulf

text: of

text: Mannar

text: and

text: the

text: Palk

text: Strait

text: on

text: the

text: southeast

text: and

text: by

text: the

text: Indian

text: Ocean

text: on

text: the

text: south

text: The

text: state

text: shares

text: maritime

text: border

text: with

text: the

text: nation

text: of

text: Sri

text: Lanka

text: Algebra (from Arabic ""al-jabr"" meaning "reunion of broken parts") is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. As such, it includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra, the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians.

text: Algebra

text: from

text: Arabic

text: al

text: jabr

text: meaning

text: reunion

text: of

text: broken

text: parts

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: broad

text: parts

text: of

text: mathematics

text: together

text: with

text: number

text: theory

text: geometry

text: and

text: analysis

text: In

text: its

text: most

text: general

text: form

text: algebra

text: is

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: mathematical

text: symbols

text: and

text: the

text: rules

text: for

text: manipulating

text: these

text: symbols

text: it

text: is

text: unifying

text: thread

text: of

text: almost

text: all

text: of

text: mathematics

text: As

text: such

text: it

text: includes

text: everything

text: from

text: elementary

text: equation

text: solving

text: to

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: abstractions

text: such

text: as

text: groups

text: rings

text: and

text: fields

text: The

text: more

text: basic

text: parts

text: of

text: algebra

text: are

text: called

text: elementary

text: algebra

text: the

text: more

text: abstract

text: parts

text: are

text: called

text: abstract

text: algebra

text: or

text: modern

text: algebra

text: Elementary

text: algebra

text: is

text: generally

text: considered

text: to

text: be

text: essential

text: for

text: any

text: study

text: of

text: mathematics

text: science

text: or

text: engineering

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: such

text: applications

text: as

text: medicine

text: and

text: economics

text: Abstract

text: algebra

text: is

text: major

text: area

text: in

text: advanced

text: mathematics

text: studied

text: primarily

text: by

text: professional

text: mathematicians

text: A sphere (from Greek   "sphaira", "globe, ball") is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball, (viz., analogous to a circular object in two dimensions).

text: sphere

text: from

text: Greek

text: sphaira

text: globe

text: ball

text: is

text: perfectly

text: round

text: geometrical

text: object

text: in

text: three

text: dimensional

text: space

text: that

text: is

text: the

text: surface

text: of

text: completely

text: round

text: ball

text: viz

text: analogous

text: to

text: circular

text: object

text: in

text: two

text: dimensions

text: Achyutha Pisharodi (c. 1550 at Trikkandiyur, Tirur, Kerala, India  7 July 1621 in Kerala) was a Sanskrit grammarian, astrologer, astronomer and mathematician who studied under Jyehadeva and was a member of Madhava of Sangamagrama's Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. He is remembered mainly for his part in the composition of his student Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri's devotional poem, "Narayaneeyam".

text: Achyutha

text: Pisharodi

text: at

text: Trikkandiyur

text: Tirur

text: Kerala

text: India

text: July

text: in

text: Kerala

text: was

text: Sanskrit

text: grammarian

text: astrologer

text: astronomer

text: and

text: mathematician

text: who

text: studied

text: under

text: Jyehadeva

text: and

text: was

text: member

text: of

text: Madhava

text: of

text: Sangamagrama

text: 's

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: He

text: is

text: remembered

text: mainly

text: for

text: his

text: part

text: in

text: the

text: composition

text: of

text: his

text: student

text: Melpathur

text: Narayana

text: Bhattathiri

text: 's

text: devotional

text: poem

text: Narayaneeyam

text: Spherical geometry is the geometry of the two-dimensional surface of a sphere. It is an example of a geometry that is not Euclidean. Two practical applications of the principles of spherical geometry are navigation and astronomy.

text: Spherical

text: geometry

text: is

text: the

text: geometry

text: of

text: the

text: two

text: dimensional

text: surface

text: of

text: sphere

text: It

text: is

text: an

text: example

text: of

text: geometry

text: that

text: is

text: not

text: Euclidean

text: Two

text: practical

text: applications

text: of

text: the

text: principles

text: of

text: spherical

text: geometry

text: are

text: navigation

text: and

text: astronomy

text: Aryabhatiya (IAST: ') or Aryabhatiyam ('), a Sanskrit astronomical treatise, is the "magnum opus" and only known surviving work of the 5th century Indian mathematician, Aryabhata.

text: Aryabhatiya

text: IAST

text: or

text: Aryabhatiyam

text: Sanskrit

text: astronomical

text: treatise

text: is

text: the

text: magnum

text: opus

text: and

text: only

text: known

text: surviving

text: work

text: of

text: the

text: century

text: Indian

text: mathematician

text: Aryabhata

text: Kelallur Nilakantha Somayaji ( 1444 -- 1544 ) ( also referred to as Kelallur Comatiri ) was a major mathematician and astronomer of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics . One of his most influential works was the comprehensive astronomical treatise Tantrasamgraha completed in 1501 . He had also composed an elaborate commentary on Aryabhatiya called the Aryabhatiya Bhasya . In this Bhasya , Nilakantha had discussed infinite series expansions of trigonometric functions and problems of algebra and spherical geometry . Grahapareeksakrama is a manual on making observations in astronomy based on instruments of the time .

text: Kelallur

text: Nilakantha

text: Somayaji

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: Kelallur

text: Comatiri

text: was

text: major

text: mathematician

text: and

text: astronomer

text: of

text: the

text: Kerala

text: school

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: One

text: of

text: his

text: most

text: influential

text: works

text: was

text: the

text: comprehensive

text: astronomical

text: treatise

text: Tantrasamgraha

text: completed

text: in

text: He

text: had

text: also

text: composed

text: an

text: elaborate

text: commentary

text: on

text: Aryabhatiya

text: called

text: the

text: Aryabhatiya

text: Bhasya

text: In

text: this

text: Bhasya

text: Nilakantha

text: had

text: discussed

text: infinite

text: series

text: expansions

text: of

text: trigonometric

text: functions

text: and

text: problems

text: of

text: algebra

text: and

text: spherical

text: geometry

text: Grahapareeksakrama

text: is

text: manual

text: on

text: making

text: observations

text: in

text: astronomy

text: based

text: on

text: instruments

text: of

text: the

text: time

annotations: likely multiple

question: languages_spoken_or_written nilakantha somayaji

answer: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit

text: sanskrit