text: The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that states that two or more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously. In the case of electrons in atoms, it can be stated as follows: it is impossible for two electrons of a poly-electron atom to have the same values of the four quantum numbers: "n", the principal quantum number, ', the angular momentum quantum number, "m", the magnetic quantum number, and "m", the spin quantum number. For example, if two electrons reside in the same orbital, and if their "n", ', and "m" values are the same, then their "m" must be different, and thus the electrons must have opposite half-integer spins of 1/2 and -1/2. This principle was formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 for electrons, and later extended to all fermions with his spin-statistics theorem of 1940.

text: The

text: Pauli

text: exclusion

text: principle

text: is

text: the

text: quantum

text: mechanical

text: principle

text: that

text: states

text: that

text: two

text: or

text: more

text: identical

text: fermions

text: particles

text: with

text: half

text: integer

text: spin

text: can

text: not

text: occupy

text: the

text: same

text: quantum

text: state

text: within

text: quantum

text: system

text: simultaneously

text: In

text: the

text: case

text: of

text: electrons

text: in

text: atoms

text: it

text: can

text: be

text: stated

text: as

text: follows

text: it

text: is

text: impossible

text: for

text: two

text: electrons

text: of

text: poly

text: electron

text: atom

text: to

text: have

text: the

text: same

text: values

text: of

text: the

text: four

text: quantum

text: numbers

text: the

text: principal

text: quantum

text: number

text: the

text: angular

text: momentum

text: quantum

text: number

text: the

text: magnetic

text: quantum

text: number

text: and

text: the

text: spin

text: quantum

text: number

text: For

text: example

text: if

text: two

text: electrons

text: reside

text: in

text: the

text: same

text: orbital

text: and

text: if

text: their

text: and

text: values

text: are

text: the

text: same

text: then

text: their

text: must

text: be

text: different

text: and

text: thus

text: the

text: electrons

text: must

text: have

text: opposite

text: half

text: integer

text: spins

text: of

text: and

text: This

text: principle

text: was

text: formulated

text: by

text: Austrian

text: physicist

text: Wolfgang

text: Pauli

text: in

text: for

text: electrons

text: and

text: later

text: extended

text: to

text: all

text: fermions

text: with

text: his

text: spin

text: statistics

text: theorem

text: of

text: The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901; the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

text: The

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Physics

text: is

text: yearly

text: award

text: given

text: by

text: the

text: Royal

text: Swedish

text: Academy

text: of

text: Sciences

text: for

text: those

text: who

text: conferred

text: the

text: most

text: outstanding

text: contributions

text: for

text: mankind

text: in

text: the

text: field

text: of

text: physics

text: It

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: five

text: Nobel

text: Prizes

text: established

text: by

text: the

text: will

text: of

text: Alfred

text: Nobel

text: in

text: and

text: awarded

text: since

text: the

text: others

text: being

text: the

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Chemistry

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Literature

text: Nobel

text: Peace

text: Prize

text: and

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Physiology

text: or

text: Medicine

text: World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nationsincluding all of the great powerseventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (in which approximately one million were killed, and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: often

text: abbreviated

text: to

text: WWII

text: or

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: Second

text: World

text: War

text: was

text: global

text: war

text: that

text: lasted

text: from

text: to

text: although

text: related

text: conflicts

text: began

text: earlier

text: It

text: involved

text: the

text: vast

text: majority

text: of

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: nationsincluding

text: all

text: of

text: the

text: great

text: powerseventually

text: forming

text: two

text: opposing

text: military

text: alliances

text: the

text: Allies

text: and

text: the

text: Axis

text: It

text: was

text: the

text: most

text: widespread

text: war

text: in

text: history

text: and

text: directly

text: involved

text: more

text: than

text: million

text: people

text: from

text: over

text: countries

text: In

text: state

text: of

text: total

text: war

text: the

text: major

text: participants

text: threw

text: their

text: entire

text: economic

text: industrial

text: and

text: scientific

text: capabilities

text: behind

text: the

text: war

text: effort

text: erasing

text: the

text: distinction

text: between

text: civilian

text: and

text: military

text: resources

text: Marked

text: by

text: mass

text: deaths

text: of

text: civilians

text: including

text: the

text: Holocaust

text: in

text: which

text: approximately

text: million

text: people

text: were

text: killed

text: and

text: the

text: strategic

text: bombing

text: of

text: industrial

text: and

text: population

text: centres

text: in

text: which

text: approximately

text: one

text: million

text: were

text: killed

text: and

text: which

text: included

text: the

text: atomic

text: bombings

text: of

text: Hiroshima

text: and

text: Nagasaki

text: it

text: resulted

text: in

text: an

text: estimated

text: million

text: to

text: million

text: fatalities

text: These

text: made

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: the

text: deadliest

text: conflict

text: in

text: human

text: history

text: The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, "". As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all matter, electrons have properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a larger De Broglie wavelength for a given energy.

text: The

text: electron

text: is

text: subatomic

text: particle

text: symbol

text: or

text: with

text: negative

text: elementary

text: electric

text: charge

text: Electrons

text: belong

text: to

text: the

text: first

text: generation

text: of

text: the

text: lepton

text: particle

text: family

text: and

text: are

text: generally

text: thought

text: to

text: be

text: elementary

text: particles

text: because

text: they

text: have

text: no

text: known

text: components

text: or

text: substructure

text: The

text: electron

text: has

text: mass

text: that

text: is

text: approximately

text: that

text: of

text: the

text: proton

text: Quantum

text: mechanical

text: properties

text: of

text: the

text: electron

text: include

text: an

text: intrinsic

text: angular

text: momentum

text: spin

text: of

text: half

text: integer

text: value

text: expressed

text: in

text: units

text: of

text: the

text: reduced

text: Planck

text: constant

text: As

text: it

text: is

text: fermion

text: no

text: two

text: electrons

text: can

text: occupy

text: the

text: same

text: quantum

text: state

text: in

text: accordance

text: with

text: the

text: Pauli

text: exclusion

text: principle

text: Like

text: all

text: matter

text: electrons

text: have

text: properties

text: of

text: both

text: particles

text: and

text: waves

text: they

text: can

text: collide

text: with

text: other

text: particles

text: and

text: can

text: be

text: diffracted

text: like

text: light

text: The

text: wave

text: properties

text: of

text: electrons

text: are

text: easier

text: to

text: observe

text: with

text: experiments

text: than

text: those

text: of

text: other

text: particles

text: like

text: neutrons

text: and

text: protons

text: because

text: electrons

text: have

text: lower

text: mass

text: and

text: hence

text: larger

text: De

text: Broglie

text: wavelength

text: for

text: given

text: energy

text: Hiroshima is perhaps best known as the first city in history to be targeted by a nuclear weapon when the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped an atomic bomb on the city (and later on Nagasaki) at 8:15 a.m. on August 6, 1945, near the end of World War II.

text: Hiroshima

text: is

text: perhaps

text: best

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: first

text: city

text: in

text: history

text: to

text: be

text: targeted

text: by

text: nuclear

text: weapon

text: when

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Army

text: Air

text: Forces

text: USAAF

text: dropped

text: an

text: atomic

text: bomb

text: on

text: the

text: city

text: and

text: later

text: on

text: Nagasaki

text: at

text: a.m.

text: on

text: August

text: near

text: the

text: end

text: of

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: Newton's law of universal gravitation states that a particle attracts every other particle in the universe using a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" ("the "Principia""), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him; see the History section below.)

text: Newton

text: 's

text: law

text: of

text: universal

text: gravitation

text: states

text: that

text: particle

text: attracts

text: every

text: other

text: particle

text: in

text: the

text: universe

text: using

text: force

text: that

text: is

text: directly

text: proportional

text: to

text: the

text: product

text: of

text: their

text: masses

text: and

text: inversely

text: proportional

text: to

text: the

text: square

text: of

text: the

text: distance

text: between

text: them

text: This

text: is

text: general

text: physical

text: law

text: derived

text: from

text: empirical

text: observations

text: by

text: what

text: Isaac

text: Newton

text: called

text: inductive

text: reasoning

text: It

text: is

text: part

text: of

text: classical

text: mechanics

text: and

text: was

text: formulated

text: in

text: Newton

text: 's

text: work

text: Philosophiæ

text: Naturalis

text: Principia

text: Mathematica

text: the

text: Principia

text: first

text: published

text: on

text: July

text: When

text: Newton

text: 's

text: book

text: was

text: presented

text: in

text: to

text: the

text: Royal

text: Society

text: Robert

text: Hooke

text: made

text: claim

text: that

text: Newton

text: had

text: obtained

text: the

text: inverse

text: square

text: law

text: from

text: him

text: see

text: the

text: History

text: section

text: below

text: The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons, each with mass approximately one atomic mass unit, constitute the nucleus of an atom, and they are collectively referred to as nucleons. Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics.

text: The

text: neutron

text: is

text: subatomic

text: particle

text: symbol

text: or

text: with

text: no

text: net

text: electric

text: charge

text: and

text: mass

text: slightly

text: larger

text: than

text: that

text: of

text: proton

text: Protons

text: and

text: neutrons

text: each

text: with

text: mass

text: approximately

text: one

text: atomic

text: mass

text: unit

text: constitute

text: the

text: nucleus

text: of

text: an

text: atom

text: and

text: they

text: are

text: collectively

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: nucleons

text: Their

text: properties

text: and

text: interactions

text: are

text: described

text: by

text: nuclear

text: physics

text: Albert Einstein (14 March 1879  18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his massenergy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory.

text: Albert

text: Einstein

text: March

text: April

text: was

text: German

text: born

text: theoretical

text: physicist

text: He

text: developed

text: the

text: general

text: theory

text: of

text: relativity

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: two

text: pillars

text: of

text: modern

text: physics

text: alongside

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: work

text: is

text: also

text: known

text: for

text: its

text: influence

text: on

text: the

text: philosophy

text: of

text: science

text: Einstein

text: is

text: best

text: known

text: in

text: popular

text: culture

text: for

text: his

text: massenergy

text: equivalence

text: formula

text: which

text: has

text: been

text: dubbed

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: most

text: famous

text: equation

text: He

text: received

text: the

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Physics

text: for

text: his

text: services

text: to

text: theoretical

text: physics

text: in

text: particular

text: his

text: discovery

text: of

text: the

text: law

text: of

text: the

text: photoelectric

text: effect

text: pivotal

text: step

text: in

text: the

text: evolution

text: of

text: quantum

text: theory

text: The one-electron universe postulate, proposed by John Wheeler in a telephone call to Richard Feynman in the spring of 1940, hypothesises that all electrons and positrons are actually manifestations of a single entity moving backwards and forwards in time. According to Feynman:

text: The

text: one

text: electron

text: universe

text: postulate

text: proposed

text: by

text: John

text: Wheeler

text: in

text: telephone

text: call

text: to

text: Richard

text: Feynman

text: in

text: the

text: spring

text: of

text: hypothesises

text: that

text: all

text: electrons

text: and

text: positrons

text: are

text: actually

text: manifestations

text: of

text: single

text: entity

text: moving

text: backwards

text: and

text: forwards

text: in

text: time

text: According

text: to

text: Feynman

text: Paul Ehrenfest (January 18, 1880  September 25, 1933) was an Austrian and Dutch theoretical physicist, who made major contributions to the field of statistical mechanics and its relations with quantum mechanics, including the theory of phase transition and the Ehrenfest theorem.

text: Paul

text: Ehrenfest

text: January

text: September

text: was

text: an

text: Austrian

text: and

text: Dutch

text: theoretical

text: physicist

text: who

text: made

text: major

text: contributions

text: to

text: the

text: field

text: of

text: statistical

text: mechanics

text: and

text: its

text: relations

text: with

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: including

text: the

text: theory

text: of

text: phase

text: transition

text: and

text: the

text: Ehrenfest

text: theorem

text: The Planck constant (denoted , also called Planck's constant) is a physical constant that is the quantum of action, central in quantum mechanics.

text: The

text: Planck

text: constant

text: denoted

text: also

text: called

text: Planck

text: 's

text: constant

text: is

text: physical

text: constant

text: that

text: is

text: the

text: quantum

text: of

text: action

text: central

text: in

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: In chemistry and physics, nucleons are the proton and the neutron, which are the constituents of the atomic nucleus, and are themselves composed of down and up quarks. The number of nucleons defines an isotope's mass number (nucleon number). The atom is made up of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: and

text: physics

text: nucleons

text: are

text: the

text: proton

text: and

text: the

text: neutron

text: which

text: are

text: the

text: constituents

text: of

text: the

text: atomic

text: nucleus

text: and

text: are

text: themselves

text: composed

text: of

text: down

text: and

text: up

text: quarks

text: The

text: number

text: of

text: nucleons

text: defines

text: an

text: isotope

text: 's

text: mass

text: number

text: nucleon

text: number

text: The

text: atom

text: is

text: made

text: up

text: of

text: nucleus

text: surrounded

text: by

text: electrons

text: A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothingnot even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as lightcan escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, no locally detectable features appear to be observed. In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.

text: black

text: hole

text: is

text: region

text: of

text: spacetime

text: exhibiting

text: such

text: strong

text: gravitational

text: effects

text: that

text: nothingnot

text: even

text: particles

text: and

text: electromagnetic

text: radiation

text: such

text: as

text: lightcan

text: escape

text: from

text: inside

text: it

text: The

text: theory

text: of

text: general

text: relativity

text: predicts

text: that

text: sufficiently

text: compact

text: mass

text: can

text: deform

text: spacetime

text: to

text: form

text: black

text: hole

text: The

text: boundary

text: of

text: the

text: region

text: from

text: which

text: no

text: escape

text: is

text: possible

text: is

text: called

text: the

text: event

text: horizon

text: Although

text: the

text: event

text: horizon

text: has

text: an

text: enormous

text: effect

text: on

text: the

text: fate

text: and

text: circumstances

text: of

text: an

text: object

text: crossing

text: it

text: no

text: locally

text: detectable

text: features

text: appear

text: to

text: be

text: observed

text: In

text: many

text: ways

text: black

text: hole

text: acts

text: like

text: an

text: ideal

text: black

text: body

text: as

text: it

text: reflects

text: no

text: light

text: Moreover

text: quantum

text: field

text: theory

text: in

text: curved

text: spacetime

text: predicts

text: that

text: event

text: horizons

text: emit

text: Hawking

text: radiation

text: with

text: the

text: same

text: spectrum

text: as

text: black

text: body

text: of

text: temperature

text: inversely

text: proportional

text: to

text: its

text: mass

text: This

text: temperature

text: is

text: on

text: the

text: order

text: of

text: billionths

text: of

text: kelvin

text: for

text: black

text: holes

text: of

text: stellar

text: mass

text: making

text: it

text: essentially

text: impossible

text: to

text: observe

text: In physics, a quantum (plural: quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction. The fundamental notion that a physical property may be "quantized," referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization". This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only certain discrete values.

text: In

text: physics

text: quantum

text: plural

text: quanta

text: is

text: the

text: minimum

text: amount

text: of

text: any

text: physical

text: entity

text: involved

text: in

text: an

text: interaction

text: The

text: fundamental

text: notion

text: that

text: physical

text: property

text: may

text: be

text: quantized

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: the

text: hypothesis

text: of

text: quantization

text: This

text: means

text: that

text: the

text: magnitude

text: of

text: the

text: physical

text: property

text: can

text: take

text: on

text: only

text: certain

text: discrete

text: values

text: Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are brought toward (or "gravitate" toward) one another, including planets, stars and galaxies. Since energy and mass are equivalent, all forms of energy, including light, also cause gravitation and are under the influence of it. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the ocean tides. The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to begin coalescing, forming stars  and the stars to group together into galaxies  so gravity is responsible for many of the large scale structures in the Universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects.

text: Gravity

text: or

text: gravitation

text: is

text: natural

text: phenomenon

text: by

text: which

text: all

text: things

text: with

text: mass

text: are

text: brought

text: toward

text: or

text: gravitate

text: toward

text: one

text: another

text: including

text: planets

text: stars

text: and

text: galaxies

text: Since

text: energy

text: and

text: mass

text: are

text: equivalent

text: all

text: forms

text: of

text: energy

text: including

text: light

text: also

text: cause

text: gravitation

text: and

text: are

text: under

text: the

text: influence

text: of

text: it

text: On

text: Earth

text: gravity

text: gives

text: weight

text: to

text: physical

text: objects

text: and

text: causes

text: the

text: ocean

text: tides

text: The

text: gravitational

text: attraction

text: of

text: the

text: original

text: gaseous

text: matter

text: present

text: in

text: the

text: Universe

text: caused

text: it

text: to

text: begin

text: coalescing

text: forming

text: stars

text: and

text: the

text: stars

text: to

text: group

text: together

text: into

text: galaxies

text: so

text: gravity

text: is

text: responsible

text: for

text: many

text: of

text: the

text: large

text: scale

text: structures

text: in

text: the

text: Universe

text: Gravity

text: has

text: an

text: infinite

text: range

text: although

text: its

text: effects

text: become

text: increasingly

text: weaker

text: on

text: farther

text: objects

text: Modern physics is the post-Newtonian conception of physics. It implies that classical descriptions of phenomena are lacking, and that an accurate, "modern", description of nature requires theories to incorporate elements of quantum mechanics or Einsteinian relativity, or both. In general, the term is used to refer to any branch of physics either developed in the early 20th century and onwards, or branches greatly influenced by early 20th century physics.

text: Modern

text: physics

text: is

text: the

text: post

text: Newtonian

text: conception

text: of

text: physics

text: It

text: implies

text: that

text: classical

text: descriptions

text: of

text: phenomena

text: are

text: lacking

text: and

text: that

text: an

text: accurate

text: modern

text: description

text: of

text: nature

text: requires

text: theories

text: to

text: incorporate

text: elements

text: of

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: or

text: Einsteinian

text: relativity

text: or

text: both

text: In

text: general

text: the

text: term

text: is

text: used

text: to

text: refer

text: to

text: any

text: branch

text: of

text: physics

text: either

text: developed

text: in

text: the

text: early

text: century

text: and

text: onwards

text: or

text: branches

text: greatly

text: influenced

text: by

text: early

text: century

text: physics

text: Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract. An object is negatively charged if it has an excess of electrons, and is otherwise positively charged or uncharged. The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). In electrical engineering, it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah), and, in chemistry, it is common to use the elementary charge ("e") as a unit. The symbol "Q" often denotes charge. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that don't require consideration of quantum effects.

text: Electric

text: charge

text: is

text: the

text: physical

text: property

text: of

text: matter

text: that

text: causes

text: it

text: to

text: experience

text: force

text: when

text: placed

text: in

text: an

text: electromagnetic

text: field

text: There

text: are

text: two

text: types

text: of

text: electric

text: charges

text: positive

text: and

text: negative

text: Like

text: charges

text: repel

text: and

text: unlike

text: attract

text: An

text: object

text: is

text: negatively

text: charged

text: if

text: it

text: has

text: an

text: excess

text: of

text: electrons

text: and

text: is

text: otherwise

text: positively

text: charged

text: or

text: uncharged

text: The

text: SI

text: derived

text: unit

text: of

text: electric

text: charge

text: is

text: the

text: coulomb

text: In

text: electrical

text: engineering

text: it

text: is

text: also

text: common

text: to

text: use

text: the

text: ampere

text: hour

text: Ah

text: and

text: in

text: chemistry

text: it

text: is

text: common

text: to

text: use

text: the

text: elementary

text: charge

text: as

text: unit

text: The

text: symbol

text: often

text: denotes

text: charge

text: Early

text: knowledge

text: of

text: how

text: charged

text: substances

text: interact

text: is

text: now

text: called

text: classical

text: electrodynamics

text: and

text: is

text: still

text: accurate

text: for

text: problems

text: that

text: do

text: n't

text: require

text: consideration

text: of

text: quantum

text: effects

text: John Archibald Wheeler ( July 9 , 1911 -- April 13 , 2008 ) was an American theoretical physicist . He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II. Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in explaining the basic principles behind nuclear fission . Together with Gregory Breit , Wheeler developed the concept of Breit -- Wheeler process . He is also known for popularizing the term `` black hole '' , for coining the terms `` neutron moderator '' , `` quantum foam '' , `` wormhole '' , and `` it from bit '' , and for hypothesizing the `` one - electron universe '' . Wheeler earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld , and studied under Breit and Bohr on a National Research Council fellowship . In 1939 he teamed up with Bohr to write a series of papers using the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of fission . During World War II , he worked with the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , where he helped design nuclear reactors , and then at the Hanford Site in Richland , Washington , where he helped DuPont build them . He returned to Princeton after the war ended , but returned to government service to help design and build the hydrogen bomb in the early 1950s . For most of his career , Wheeler was a professor at Princeton University , which he joined in 1938 , remaining until his retirement in 1976 . At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs , more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department .

text: John

text: Archibald

text: Wheeler

text: July

text: April

text: was

text: an

text: American

text: theoretical

text: physicist

text: He

text: was

text: largely

text: responsible

text: for

text: reviving

text: interest

text: in

text: general

text: relativity

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: after

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: Wheeler

text: also

text: worked

text: with

text: Niels

text: Bohr

text: in

text: explaining

text: the

text: basic

text: principles

text: behind

text: nuclear

text: fission

text: Together

text: with

text: Gregory

text: Breit

text: Wheeler

text: developed

text: the

text: concept

text: of

text: Breit

text: Wheeler

text: process

text: He

text: is

text: also

text: known

text: for

text: popularizing

text: the

text: term

text: black

text: hole

text: for

text: coining

text: the

text: terms

text: neutron

text: moderator

text: quantum

text: foam

text: wormhole

text: and

text: it

text: from

text: bit

text: and

text: for

text: hypothesizing

text: the

text: one

text: electron

text: universe

text: Wheeler

text: earned

text: his

text: doctorate

text: at

text: Johns

text: Hopkins

text: University

text: under

text: the

text: supervision

text: of

text: Karl

text: Herzfeld

text: and

text: studied

text: under

text: Breit

text: and

text: Bohr

text: on

text: National

text: Research

text: Council

text: fellowship

text: In

text: he

text: teamed

text: up

text: with

text: Bohr

text: to

text: write

text: series

text: of

text: papers

text: using

text: the

text: liquid

text: drop

text: model

text: to

text: explain

text: the

text: mechanism

text: of

text: fission

text: During

text: World

text: War

text: II

text: he

text: worked

text: with

text: the

text: Manhattan

text: Project

text: 's

text: Metallurgical

text: Laboratory

text: in

text: Chicago

text: where

text: he

text: helped

text: design

text: nuclear

text: reactors

text: and

text: then

text: at

text: the

text: Hanford

text: Site

text: in

text: Richland

text: Washington

text: where

text: he

text: helped

text: DuPont

text: build

text: them

text: He

text: returned

text: to

text: Princeton

text: after

text: the

text: war

text: ended

text: but

text: returned

text: to

text: government

text: service

text: to

text: help

text: design

text: and

text: build

text: the

text: hydrogen

text: bomb

text: in

text: the

text: early

text: For

text: most

text: of

text: his

text: career

text: Wheeler

text: was

text: professor

text: at

text: Princeton

text: University

text: which

text: he

text: joined

text: in

text: remaining

text: until

text: his

text: retirement

text: in

text: At

text: Princeton

text: he

text: supervised

text: PhDs

text: more

text: than

text: any

text: other

text: professor

text: in

text: the

text: Princeton

text: physics

text: department

text: Niels Henrik David Bohr (7 October 1885  18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.

text: Niels

text: Henrik

text: David

text: Bohr

text: October

text: November

text: was

text: Danish

text: physicist

text: who

text: made

text: foundational

text: contributions

text: to

text: understanding

text: atomic

text: structure

text: and

text: quantum

text: theory

text: for

text: which

text: he

text: received

text: the

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Physics

text: in

text: Bohr

text: was

text: also

text: philosopher

text: and

text: promoter

text: of

text: scientific

text: research

text: In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is the measure of an object's resistance to acceleration (a change in its state of motion) when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other bodies. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

text: In

text: physics

text: mass

text: is

text: property

text: of

text: physical

text: body

text: It

text: is

text: the

text: measure

text: of

text: an

text: object

text: 's

text: resistance

text: to

text: acceleration

text: change

text: in

text: its

text: state

text: of

text: motion

text: when

text: net

text: force

text: is

text: applied

text: It

text: also

text: determines

text: the

text: strength

text: of

text: its

text: mutual

text: gravitational

text: attraction

text: to

text: other

text: bodies

text: The

text: basic

text: SI

text: unit

text: of

text: mass

text: is

text: the

text: kilogram

text: kg

text: Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics or quantum theory), including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature at small scales and low energies of atoms and subatomic particles. Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid only at large (macroscopic) scales. Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum and other quantities are often restricted to discrete values (quantization), objects have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-particle duality), and there are limits to the precision with which quantities can be known (Uncertainty principle).

text: Quantum

text: mechanics

text: QM

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: quantum

text: physics

text: or

text: quantum

text: theory

text: including

text: quantum

text: field

text: theory

text: is

text: branch

text: of

text: physics

text: which

text: is

text: the

text: fundamental

text: theory

text: of

text: nature

text: at

text: small

text: scales

text: and

text: low

text: energies

text: of

text: atoms

text: and

text: subatomic

text: particles

text: Classical

text: physics

text: the

text: physics

text: existing

text: before

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: derives

text: from

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: as

text: an

text: approximation

text: valid

text: only

text: at

text: large

text: macroscopic

text: scales

text: Quantum

text: mechanics

text: differs

text: from

text: classical

text: physics

text: in

text: that

text: energy

text: momentum

text: and

text: other

text: quantities

text: are

text: often

text: restricted

text: to

text: discrete

text: values

text: quantization

text: objects

text: have

text: characteristics

text: of

text: both

text: particles

text: and

text: waves

text: wave

text: particle

text: duality

text: and

text: there

text: are

text: limits

text: to

text: the

text: precision

text: with

text: which

text: quantities

text: can

text: be

text: known

text: Uncertainty

text: principle

text: In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is the theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of subatomic particles in particle physics and quasiparticles in condensed matter physics. QFT treats particles as excited states of the underlying physical field, so these are called field quanta.

text: In

text: theoretical

text: physics

text: quantum

text: field

text: theory

text: QFT

text: is

text: the

text: theoretical

text: framework

text: for

text: constructing

text: quantum

text: mechanical

text: models

text: of

text: subatomic

text: particles

text: in

text: particle

text: physics

text: and

text: quasiparticles

text: in

text: condensed

text: matter

text: physics

text: QFT

text: treats

text: particles

text: as

text: excited

text: states

text: of

text: the

text: underlying

text: physical

text: field

text: so

text: these

text: are

text: called

text: field

text: quanta

text: In physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the generally accepted and experimentally well-confirmed physical theory regarding the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's original pedagogical treatment, it is based on two postulates:

text: In

text: physics

text: special

text: relativity

text: SR

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: special

text: theory

text: of

text: relativity

text: or

text: STR

text: is

text: the

text: generally

text: accepted

text: and

text: experimentally

text: well

text: confirmed

text: physical

text: theory

text: regarding

text: the

text: relationship

text: between

text: space

text: and

text: time

text: In

text: Albert

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: original

text: pedagogical

text: treatment

text: it

text: is

text: based

text: on

text: two

text: postulates

text: Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying its morale or its economic ability to produce and transport materiel to the theatres of military operations, or both. It is a systematically organized and executed attack from the air which can utilize strategic bombers, long- or medium-range missiles, or nuclear-armed fighter-bomber aircraft to attack targets deemed vital to the enemy's war-making capability.

text: Strategic

text: bombing

text: is

text: military

text: strategy

text: used

text: in

text: total

text: war

text: with

text: the

text: goal

text: of

text: defeating

text: the

text: enemy

text: by

text: destroying

text: its

text: morale

text: or

text: its

text: economic

text: ability

text: to

text: produce

text: and

text: transport

text: materiel

text: to

text: the

text: theatres

text: of

text: military

text: operations

text: or

text: both

text: It

text: is

text: systematically

text: organized

text: and

text: executed

text: attack

text: from

text: the

text: air

text: which

text: can

text: utilize

text: strategic

text: bombers

text: long-

text: or

text: medium

text: range

text: missiles

text: or

text: nuclear

text: armed

text: fighter

text: bomber

text: aircraft

text: to

text: attack

text: targets

text: deemed

text: vital

text: to

text: the

text: enemy

text: 's

text: war

text: making

text: capability

text: In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is either a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei). The fission process often produces free neutrons and gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.

text: In

text: nuclear

text: physics

text: and

text: nuclear

text: chemistry

text: nuclear

text: fission

text: is

text: either

text: nuclear

text: reaction

text: or

text: radioactive

text: decay

text: process

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: nucleus

text: of

text: an

text: atom

text: splits

text: into

text: smaller

text: parts

text: lighter

text: nuclei

text: The

text: fission

text: process

text: often

text: produces

text: free

text: neutrons

text: and

text: gamma

text: photons

text: and

text: releases

text: very

text: large

text: amount

text: of

text: energy

text: even

text: by

text: the

text: energetic

text: standards

text: of

text: radioactive

text: decay

text: Gregory Breit (Grigory Alfredovich Breit-Shneider; July 14, 1899, Mykolaiv  September 11, 1981, Houston, Texas) was an American physicist and professor at NYU (19291934), U. of WisconsinMadison (19341947), Yale (19471968), and Buffalo (19681973). In 1921, he was Paul Ehrenfest's assistant in Leiden.

text: Gregory

text: Breit

text: Grigory

text: Alfredovich

text: Breit

text: Shneider

text: July

text: Mykolaiv

text: September

text: Houston

text: Texas

text: was

text: an

text: American

text: physicist

text: and

text: professor

text: at

text: NYU

text: of

text: WisconsinMadison

text: Yale

text: and

text: Buffalo

text: In

text: he

text: was

text: Paul

text: Ehrenfest

text: 's

text: assistant

text: in

text: Leiden

text: General relativity (GR, also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the "" is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations.

text: General

text: relativity

text: GR

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: general

text: theory

text: of

text: relativity

text: or

text: GTR

text: is

text: the

text: geometric

text: theory

text: of

text: gravitation

text: published

text: by

text: Albert

text: Einstein

text: in

text: and

text: the

text: current

text: description

text: of

text: gravitation

text: in

text: modern

text: physics

text: General

text: relativity

text: generalizes

text: special

text: relativity

text: and

text: Newton

text: 's

text: law

text: of

text: universal

text: gravitation

text: providing

text: unified

text: description

text: of

text: gravity

text: as

text: geometric

text: property

text: of

text: space

text: and

text: time

text: or

text: spacetime

text: In

text: particular

text: the

text: is

text: directly

text: related

text: to

text: the

text: energy

text: and

text: momentum

text: of

text: whatever

text: matter

text: and

text: radiation

text: are

text: present

text: The

text: relation

text: is

text: specified

text: by

text: the

text: Einstein

text: field

text: equations

text: system

text: of

text: partial

text: differential

text: equations

text: The Holocaust (from the Greek ': "hólos", "whole" and "kaustós", "burnt"), also referred to as the Shoah"' (Hebrew: , "HaShoah", "the catastrophe"), was a genocide in which Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany and its collaborators killed about six million Jews. The victims included 1.5 million children and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe. Some definitions of the Holocaust include the additional five million non-Jewish victims of Nazi mass murders, bringing the total to about 11 million. Killings took place throughout Nazi Germany, German-occupied territories, and territories held by allies of Nazi Germany.

text: The

text: Holocaust

text: from

text: the

text: Greek

text: hólos

text: whole

text: and

text: kaustós

text: burnt

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: the

text: Shoah

text: Hebrew

text: HaShoah

text: the

text: catastrophe

text: was

text: genocide

text: in

text: which

text: Adolf

text: Hitler

text: 's

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: and

text: its

text: collaborators

text: killed

text: about

text: six

text: million

text: Jews

text: The

text: victims

text: included

text: million

text: children

text: and

text: represented

text: about

text: two

text: thirds

text: of

text: the

text: nine

text: million

text: Jews

text: who

text: had

text: resided

text: in

text: Europe

text: Some

text: definitions

text: of

text: the

text: Holocaust

text: include

text: the

text: additional

text: five

text: million

text: non

text: Jewish

text: victims

text: of

text: Nazi

text: mass

text: murders

text: bringing

text: the

text: total

text: to

text: about

text: million

text: Killings

text: took

text: place

text: throughout

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: German

text: occupied

text: territories

text: and

text: territories

text: held

text: by

text: allies

text: of

text: Nazi

text: Germany

text: A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force (even when static via virtual photons). The photon has zero rest mass and is always moving at the speed of light. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit waveparticle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a single photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself, and it can behave as a particle with definite and finite measurable position and momentum. The photon's wave and quanta qualities are two observable aspects of a single phenomenon, and cannot be described by any mechanical model; a representation of this dual property of light, which assumes certain points on the wavefront to be the seat of the energy, is not possible. The quanta in a light wave cannot be spatially localized. Some defined physical parameters of a photon are listed.

text: photon

text: is

text: an

text: elementary

text: particle

text: the

text: quantum

text: of

text: the

text: electromagnetic

text: field

text: including

text: electromagnetic

text: radiation

text: such

text: as

text: light

text: and

text: the

text: force

text: carrier

text: for

text: the

text: electromagnetic

text: force

text: even

text: when

text: static

text: via

text: virtual

text: photons

text: The

text: photon

text: has

text: zero

text: rest

text: mass

text: and

text: is

text: always

text: moving

text: at

text: the

text: speed

text: of

text: light

text: Like

text: all

text: elementary

text: particles

text: photons

text: are

text: currently

text: best

text: explained

text: by

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: and

text: exhibit

text: waveparticle

text: duality

text: exhibiting

text: properties

text: of

text: both

text: waves

text: and

text: particles

text: For

text: example

text: single

text: photon

text: may

text: be

text: refracted

text: by

text: lens

text: and

text: exhibit

text: wave

text: interference

text: with

text: itself

text: and

text: it

text: can

text: behave

text: as

text: particle

text: with

text: definite

text: and

text: finite

text: measurable

text: position

text: and

text: momentum

text: The

text: photon

text: 's

text: wave

text: and

text: quanta

text: qualities

text: are

text: two

text: observable

text: aspects

text: of

text: single

text: phenomenon

text: and

text: can

text: not

text: be

text: described

text: by

text: any

text: mechanical

text: model

text: representation

text: of

text: this

text: dual

text: property

text: of

text: light

text: which

text: assumes

text: certain

text: points

text: on

text: the

text: wavefront

text: to

text: be

text: the

text: seat

text: of

text: the

text: energy

text: is

text: not

text: possible

text: The

text: quanta

text: in

text: light

text: wave

text: can

text: not

text: be

text: spatially

text: localized

text: Some

text: defined

text: physical

text: parameters

text: of

text: photon

text: are

text: listed

text: Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918  February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics for which he proposed the parton model. For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sin'ichir Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.

text: Richard

text: Phillips

text: Feynman

text: May

text: February

text: was

text: an

text: American

text: theoretical

text: physicist

text: known

text: for

text: his

text: work

text: in

text: the

text: path

text: integral

text: formulation

text: of

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: the

text: theory

text: of

text: quantum

text: electrodynamics

text: and

text: the

text: physics

text: of

text: the

text: superfluidity

text: of

text: supercooled

text: liquid

text: helium

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: in

text: particle

text: physics

text: for

text: which

text: he

text: proposed

text: the

text: parton

text: model

text: For

text: his

text: contributions

text: to

text: the

text: development

text: of

text: quantum

text: electrodynamics

text: Feynman

text: jointly

text: with

text: Julian

text: Schwinger

text: and

text: Sin'ichir

text: Tomonaga

text: received

text: the

text: Nobel

text: Prize

text: in

text: Physics

text: in

text: In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle (such as a proton, neutron, or high energy electron) from outside the atom, collide to produce one or more nuclides that are different from the nuclide(s) that began the process. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. If a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle and they then separate without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear scattering, rather than a nuclear reaction.

text: In

text: nuclear

text: physics

text: and

text: nuclear

text: chemistry

text: nuclear

text: reaction

text: is

text: semantically

text: considered

text: to

text: be

text: the

text: process

text: in

text: which

text: two

text: nuclei

text: or

text: else

text: nucleus

text: of

text: an

text: atom

text: and

text: subatomic

text: particle

text: such

text: as

text: proton

text: neutron

text: or

text: high

text: energy

text: electron

text: from

text: outside

text: the

text: atom

text: collide

text: to

text: produce

text: one

text: or

text: more

text: nuclides

text: that

text: are

text: different

text: from

text: the

text: nuclide(s

text: that

text: began

text: the

text: process

text: Thus

text: nuclear

text: reaction

text: must

text: cause

text: transformation

text: of

text: at

text: least

text: one

text: nuclide

text: to

text: another

text: If

text: nucleus

text: interacts

text: with

text: another

text: nucleus

text: or

text: particle

text: and

text: they

text: then

text: separate

text: without

text: changing

text: the

text: nature

text: of

text: any

text: nuclide

text: the

text: process

text: is

text: simply

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: type

text: of

text: nuclear

text: scattering

text: rather

text: than

text: nuclear

text: reaction

text: The Einstein field equations (EFE; also known as "Einstein's equations") are the set of 10 equations in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity that describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by mass and energy. First published by Einstein in 1915 as a tensor equation, the EFE equate local spacetime curvature (expressed by the Einstein tensor) with the local energy and momentum within that spacetime (expressed by the stressenergy tensor).

text: The

text: Einstein

text: field

text: equations

text: EFE

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: equations

text: are

text: the

text: set

text: of

text: equations

text: in

text: Albert

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: general

text: theory

text: of

text: relativity

text: that

text: describes

text: the

text: fundamental

text: interaction

text: of

text: gravitation

text: as

text: result

text: of

text: spacetime

text: being

text: curved

text: by

text: mass

text: and

text: energy

text: First

text: published

text: by

text: Einstein

text: in

text: as

text: tensor

text: equation

text: the

text: EFE

text: equate

text: local

text: spacetime

text: curvature

text: expressed

text: by

text: the

text: Einstein

text: tensor

text: with

text: the

text: local

text: energy

text: and

text: momentum

text: within

text: that

text: spacetime

text: expressed

text: by

text: the

text: stressenergy

text: tensor

text: In particle physics, quantum field theory in curved spacetime is an extension of standard, Minkowski space quantum field theory to curved spacetime. A general prediction of this theory is that particles can be created by time-dependent gravitational fields (multigraviton pair production), or by time-independent gravitational fields that contain horizons.

text: In

text: particle

text: physics

text: quantum

text: field

text: theory

text: in

text: curved

text: spacetime

text: is

text: an

text: extension

text: of

text: standard

text: Minkowski

text: space

text: quantum

text: field

text: theory

text: to

text: curved

text: spacetime

text: general

text: prediction

text: of

text: this

text: theory

text: is

text: that

text: particles

text: can

text: be

text: created

text: by

text: time

text: dependent

text: gravitational

text: fields

text: multigraviton

text: pair

text: production

text: or

text: by

text: time

text: independent

text: gravitational

text: fields

text: that

text: contain

text: horizons

text: In classical mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum (pl. momenta; SI unit kg · m/s) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object, quantified in kilogram-meters per second. It is dimensionally equivalent to impulse, the product of force and time, quantified in newton-seconds. Newton's second law of motion states that the change in linear momentum of a body is equal to the net impulse acting on it. For example, a heavy truck moving rapidly has a large momentum, and it takes a large or prolonged force to get the truck up to this speed, and would take a similarly large or prolonged force to bring it to a stop. If the truck were lighter, or moving more slowly, then it would have less momentum and therefore require less impulse to start or stop.

text: In

text: classical

text: mechanics

text: linear

text: momentum

text: translational

text: momentum

text: or

text: simply

text: momentum

text: pl

text: momenta

text: SI

text: unit

text: kg

text: is

text: the

text: product

text: of

text: the

text: mass

text: and

text: velocity

text: of

text: an

text: object

text: quantified

text: in

text: kilogram

text: meters

text: per

text: second

text: It

text: is

text: dimensionally

text: equivalent

text: to

text: impulse

text: the

text: product

text: of

text: force

text: and

text: time

text: quantified

text: in

text: newton

text: seconds

text: Newton

text: 's

text: second

text: law

text: of

text: motion

text: states

text: that

text: the

text: change

text: in

text: linear

text: momentum

text: of

text: body

text: is

text: equal

text: to

text: the

text: net

text: impulse

text: acting

text: on

text: it

text: For

text: example

text: heavy

text: truck

text: moving

text: rapidly

text: has

text: large

text: momentum

text: and

text: it

text: takes

text: large

text: or

text: prolonged

text: force

text: to

text: get

text: the

text: truck

text: up

text: to

text: this

text: speed

text: and

text: would

text: take

text: similarly

text: large

text: or

text: prolonged

text: force

text: to

text: bring

text: it

text: to

text: stop

text: If

text: the

text: truck

text: were

text: lighter

text: or

text: moving

text: more

text: slowly

text: then

text: it

text: would

text: have

text: less

text: momentum

text: and

text: therefore

text: require

text: less

text: impulse

text: to

text: start

text: or

text: stop

text: Quantum foam (also referred to as space-time foam) is a concept in quantum mechanics devised by John Wheeler in 1955. The "foam" is supposed to be conceptualized as the foundation of the fabric of the universe.

text: Quantum

text: foam

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: space

text: time

text: foam

text: is

text: concept

text: in

text: quantum

text: mechanics

text: devised

text: by

text: John

text: Wheeler

text: in

text: The

text: foam

text: is

text: supposed

text: to

text: be

text: conceptualized

text: as

text: the

text: foundation

text: of

text: the

text: fabric

text: of

text: the

text: universe

text: In politics and military planning, a war effort refers to a coordinated mobilization of society's resourcesboth industrial and humantowards the support of a military force. Depending on the militarization of the culture, the relative size of the armed forces and the society supporting them, the style of government, and the popular support for the military objectives, such war effort can range from a small industry to complete command of society.

text: In

text: politics

text: and

text: military

text: planning

text: war

text: effort

text: refers

text: to

text: coordinated

text: mobilization

text: of

text: society

text: 's

text: resourcesboth

text: industrial

text: and

text: humantowards

text: the

text: support

text: of

text: military

text: force

text: Depending

text: on

text: the

text: militarization

text: of

text: the

text: culture

text: the

text: relative

text: size

text: of

text: the

text: armed

text: forces

text: and

text: the

text: society

text: supporting

text: them

text: the

text: style

text: of

text: government

text: and

text: the

text: popular

text: support

text: for

text: the

text: military

text: objectives

text: such

text: war

text: effort

text: can

text: range

text: from

text: small

text: industry

text: to

text: complete

text: command

text: of

text: society

text: Hawking radiation is blackbody radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking, who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974, and sometimes also after Jacob Bekenstein, who predicted that black holes should have a finite, non-zero temperature and entropy.

text: Hawking

text: radiation

text: is

text: blackbody

text: radiation

text: that

text: is

text: predicted

text: to

text: be

text: released

text: by

text: black

text: holes

text: due

text: to

text: quantum

text: effects

text: near

text: the

text: event

text: horizon

text: It

text: is

text: named

text: after

text: the

text: physicist

text: Stephen

text: Hawking

text: who

text: provided

text: theoretical

text: argument

text: for

text: its

text: existence

text: in

text: and

text: sometimes

text: also

text: after

text: Jacob

text: Bekenstein

text: who

text: predicted

text: that

text: black

text: holes

text: should

text: have

text: finite

text: non

text: zero

text: temperature

text: and

text: entropy

question: member_of john archibald wheeler

answer: royal society

text: royal society