text: The ostrich or common ostrich ("Struthio camelus") is either one or two species of large flightless birds native to Africa, the only living member(s) of the genus "Struthio", which is in the ratite family. In 2014, the Somali ostrich ("Struthio molybdophanes") was recognized as a distinct species.

text: The

text: ostrich

text: or

text: common

text: ostrich

text: Struthio

text: camelus

text: is

text: either

text: one

text: or

text: two

text: species

text: of

text: large

text: flightless

text: birds

text: native

text: to

text: Africa

text: the

text: only

text: living

text: member(s

text: of

text: the

text: genus

text: Struthio

text: which

text: is

text: in

text: the

text: ratite

text: family

text: In

text: the

text: Somali

text: ostrich

text: Struthio

text: molybdophanes

text: was

text: recognized

text: as

text: distinct

text: species

text: The Miocene is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words (', less) and (', new) and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch.

text: The

text: Miocene

text: is

text: the

text: first

text: geological

text: epoch

text: of

text: the

text: Neogene

text: Period

text: and

text: extends

text: from

text: about

text: Ma

text: The

text: Miocene

text: was

text: named

text: by

text: Sir

text: Charles

text: Lyell

text: Its

text: name

text: comes

text: from

text: the

text: Greek

text: words

text: less

text: and

text: new

text: and

text: means

text: less

text: recent

text: because

text: it

text: has

text: fewer

text: modern

text: sea

text: invertebrates

text: than

text: the

text: Pliocene

text: The

text: Miocene

text: follows

text: the

text: Oligocene

text: Epoch

text: and

text: is

text: followed

text: by

text: the

text: Pliocene

text: Epoch

text: Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 64,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) and the bony fish.

text: Vertebrates

text: comprise

text: all

text: species

text: of

text: animals

text: within

text: the

text: subphylum

text: Vertebrata

text: chordates

text: with

text: backbones

text: Vertebrates

text: represent

text: the

text: overwhelming

text: majority

text: of

text: the

text: phylum

text: Chordata

text: with

text: currently

text: about

text: species

text: described

text: Vertebrates

text: include

text: the

text: jawless

text: fish

text: and

text: the

text: jawed

text: vertebrates

text: which

text: include

text: the

text: cartilaginous

text: fish

text: sharks

text: and

text: rays

text: and

text: the

text: bony

text: fish

text: The bee hummingbird, zunzuncito or Helena hummingbird ("Mellisuga helenae") is a species of hummingbird.

text: The

text: bee

text: hummingbird

text: zunzuncito

text: or

text: Helena

text: hummingbird

text: Mellisuga

text: helenae

text: is

text: species

text: of

text: hummingbird

text: Latin (Latin: ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets.

text: Latin

text: Latin

text: is

text: classical

text: language

text: belonging

text: to

text: the

text: Italic

text: branch

text: of

text: the

text: Indo

text: European

text: languages

text: The

text: Latin

text: alphabet

text: is

text: derived

text: from

text: the

text: Etruscan

text: and

text: Greek

text: alphabets

text: Phorusrhacids, colloquially known as terror birds, are an extinct clade of large carnivorous flightless birds (avian-dinosaurs) that were the largest species of apex predators in South America during the Cenozoic era; their temporal range covers from 62 to 1.8 million years (Ma) ago.

text: Phorusrhacids

text: colloquially

text: known

text: as

text: terror

text: birds

text: are

text: an

text: extinct

text: clade

text: of

text: large

text: carnivorous

text: flightless

text: birds

text: avian

text: dinosaurs

text: that

text: were

text: the

text: largest

text: species

text: of

text: apex

text: predators

text: in

text: South

text: America

text: during

text: the

text: Cenozoic

text: era

text: their

text: temporal

text: range

text: covers

text: from

text: to

text: million

text: years

text: Ma

text: ago

text: A federal republic is a federation of states with a republican form of government. At its core, the literal meaning of the word republic when used to reference a form of government means: "a country that is governed by elected representatives and by an elected leader (such as a president) rather than by a king or queen".

text: federal

text: republic

text: is

text: federation

text: of

text: states

text: with

text: republican

text: form

text: of

text: government

text: At

text: its

text: core

text: the

text: literal

text: meaning

text: of

text: the

text: word

text: republic

text: when

text: used

text: to

text: reference

text: form

text: of

text: government

text: means

text: country

text: that

text: is

text: governed

text: by

text: elected

text: representatives

text: and

text: by

text: an

text: elected

text: leader

text: such

text: as

text: president

text: rather

text: than

text: by

text: king

text: or

text: queen

text: Feathers are epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on birds. They are considered the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates, and indeed a premier example of a complex evolutionary novelty. They are among the characteristics that distinguish the extant birds from other living groups.

text: Feathers

text: are

text: epidermal

text: growths

text: that

text: form

text: the

text: distinctive

text: outer

text: covering

text: or

text: plumage

text: on

text: birds

text: They

text: are

text: considered

text: the

text: most

text: complex

text: integumentary

text: structures

text: found

text: in

text: vertebrates

text: and

text: indeed

text: premier

text: example

text: of

text: complex

text: evolutionary

text: novelty

text: They

text: are

text: among

text: the

text: characteristics

text: that

text: distinguish

text: the

text: extant

text: birds

text: from

text: other

text: living

text: groups

text: Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a "backbone" or "spine"), derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata. Familiar examples of invertebrates include insects; crabs, lobsters and their kin; snails, clams, octopuses and their kin; starfish, sea-urchins and their kin; and worms.

text: Invertebrates

text: are

text: animals

text: that

text: neither

text: possess

text: nor

text: develop

text: vertebral

text: column

text: commonly

text: known

text: as

text: backbone

text: or

text: spine

text: derived

text: from

text: the

text: notochord

text: This

text: includes

text: all

text: animals

text: apart

text: from

text: the

text: subphylum

text: Vertebrata

text: Familiar

text: examples

text: of

text: invertebrates

text: include

text: insects

text: crabs

text: lobsters

text: and

text: their

text: kin

text: snails

text: clams

text: octopuses

text: and

text: their

text: kin

text: starfish

text: sea

text: urchins

text: and

text: their

text: kin

text: and

text: worms

text: A songbird is a bird belonging to the clade Passeri of the perching birds (Passeriformes). Another name that is sometimes seen as a scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin "oscen", "a songbird". This group contains some 4,000 species found all over the world, in which the vocal organ typically is developed in such a way as to produce a diverse and elaborate bird song.

text: songbird

text: is

text: bird

text: belonging

text: to

text: the

text: clade

text: Passeri

text: of

text: the

text: perching

text: birds

text: Passeriformes

text: Another

text: name

text: that

text: is

text: sometimes

text: seen

text: as

text: scientific

text: or

text: vernacular

text: name

text: is

text: Oscines

text: from

text: Latin

text: oscen

text: songbird

text: This

text: group

text: contains

text: some

text: species

text: found

text: all

text: over

text: the

text: world

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: vocal

text: organ

text: typically

text: is

text: developed

text: in

text: such

text: way

text: as

text: to

text: produce

text: diverse

text: and

text: elaborate

text: bird

text: song

text:
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. Sharing the bulk of the Southern Cone with its neighbor Chile to the west, the country is also bordered by Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. With a mainland area of , Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into twenty-three provinces (singular "provincia") and one autonomous city ("ciudad autónoma"), Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation as decided by Congress.
The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system.

text: Argentina

text: officially

text: the

text: Argentine

text: Republic

text: is

text: federal

text: republic

text: in

text: the

text: southern

text: half

text: of

text: South

text: America

text: Sharing

text: the

text: bulk

text: of

text: the

text: Southern

text: Cone

text: with

text: its

text: neighbor

text: Chile

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: the

text: country

text: is

text: also

text: bordered

text: by

text: Bolivia

text: and

text: Paraguay

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: Brazil

text: to

text: the

text: northeast

text: Uruguay

text: and

text: the

text: South

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: and

text: the

text: Drake

text: Passage

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: With

text: mainland

text: area

text: of

text: Argentina

text: is

text: the

text: eighth

text: largest

text: country

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: the

text: second

text: largest

text: in

text: Latin

text: America

text: and

text: the

text: largest

text: Spanish

text: speaking

text: one

text: The

text: country

text: is

text: subdivided

text: into

text: twenty

text: three

text: provinces

text: singular

text: provincia

text: and

text: one

text: autonomous

text: city

text: ciudad

text: autónoma

text: Buenos

text: Aires

text: which

text: is

text: the

text: federal

text: capital

text: of

text: the

text: nation

text: as

text: decided

text: by

text: Congress

text: The

text: provinces

text: and

text: the

text: capital

text: have

text: their

text: own

text: constitutions

text: but

text: exist

text: under

text: federal

text: system

text: The Gelasian is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being the earliest or lowest subdivision of the Quaternary period/system and Pleistocene epoch/series. It spans the time between 2.588 ± 0.005 Ma (million years ago) and 1.806 ± 0.005 Ma. It follows the Piacenzian stage (part of the Pliocene) and is followed by the Calabrian stage.

text: The

text: Gelasian

text: is

text: an

text: age

text: in

text: the

text: international

text: geologic

text: timescale

text: or

text: stage

text: in

text: chronostratigraphy

text: being

text: the

text: earliest

text: or

text: lowest

text: subdivision

text: of

text: the

text: Quaternary

text: period

text: system

text: and

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch

text: series

text: It

text: spans

text: the

text: time

text: between

text: Ma

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: and

text: Ma

text: It

text: follows

text: the

text: Piacenzian

text: stage

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: Pliocene

text: and

text: is

text: followed

text: by

text: the

text: Calabrian

text: stage

text:
The heart is a muscular organ in humans and other animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assists in the removal of metabolic wastes. The heart is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest.
In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria; and lower left and right ventricles. Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the "right heart" and their left counterparts as the "left heart". Fish in contrast have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial node. These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic circulation, which enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation, through the lungs where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulationwhere the oxygen is used and metabolized to carbon dioxide. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers resting heart rate in the long term, and is good for heart health.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30% of deaths. Of these more than three quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke. Risk factors include: smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others. Cardiovascular diseases frequently have no symptoms or may cause chest pain or shortness of breath. Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history, listening to the heart-sounds with a stethoscope, ECG, and ultrasound. Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment.

text: The

text: heart

text: is

text: muscular

text: organ

text: in

text: humans

text: and

text: other

text: animals

text: which

text: pumps

text: blood

text: through

text: the

text: blood

text: vessels

text: of

text: the

text: circulatory

text: system

text: Blood

text: provides

text: the

text: body

text: with

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nutrients

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: assists

text: in

text: the

text: removal

text: of

text: metabolic

text: wastes

text: The

text: heart

text: is

text: located

text: between

text: the

text: lungs

text: in

text: the

text: middle

text: compartment

text: of

text: the

text: chest

text: In

text: humans

text: other

text: mammals

text: and

text: birds

text: the

text: heart

text: is

text: divided

text: into

text: four

text: chambers

text: upper

text: left

text: and

text: right

text: atria

text: and

text: lower

text: left

text: and

text: right

text: ventricles

text: Commonly

text: the

text: right

text: atrium

text: and

text: ventricle

text: are

text: referred

text: together

text: as

text: the

text: right

text: heart

text: and

text: their

text: left

text: counterparts

text: as

text: the

text: left

text: heart

text: Fish

text: in

text: contrast

text: have

text: two

text: chambers

text: an

text: atrium

text: and

text: ventricle

text: while

text: reptiles

text: have

text: three

text: chambers

text: In

text: healthy

text: heart

text: blood

text: flows

text: one

text: way

text: through

text: the

text: heart

text: due

text: to

text: heart

text: valves

text: which

text: prevent

text: backflow

text: The

text: heart

text: is

text: enclosed

text: in

text: protective

text: sac

text: the

text: pericardium

text: which

text: also

text: contains

text: small

text: amount

text: of

text: fluid

text: The

text: wall

text: of

text: the

text: heart

text: is

text: made

text: up

text: of

text: three

text: layers

text: epicardium

text: myocardium

text: and

text: endocardium

text: The

text: heart

text: pumps

text: blood

text: with

text: rhythm

text: determined

text: by

text: group

text: of

text: pacemaking

text: cells

text: in

text: the

text: sinoatrial

text: node

text: These

text: generate

text: current

text: that

text: causes

text: contraction

text: of

text: the

text: heart

text: traveling

text: through

text: the

text: atrioventricular

text: node

text: and

text: along

text: the

text: conduction

text: system

text: of

text: the

text: heart

text: The

text: heart

text: receives

text: blood

text: low

text: in

text: oxygen

text: from

text: the

text: systemic

text: circulation

text: which

text: enters

text: the

text: right

text: atrium

text: from

text: the

text: superior

text: and

text: inferior

text: venae

text: cavae

text: and

text: passes

text: to

text: the

text: right

text: ventricle

text: From

text: here

text: it

text: is

text: pumped

text: into

text: the

text: pulmonary

text: circulation

text: through

text: the

text: lungs

text: where

text: it

text: receives

text: oxygen

text: and

text: gives

text: off

text: carbon

text: dioxide

text: Oxygenated

text: blood

text: then

text: returns

text: to

text: the

text: left

text: atrium

text: passes

text: through

text: the

text: left

text: ventricle

text: and

text: is

text: pumped

text: out

text: through

text: the

text: aorta

text: to

text: the

text: systemic

text: circulationwhere

text: the

text: oxygen

text: is

text: used

text: and

text: metabolized

text: to

text: carbon

text: dioxide

text: The

text: heart

text: beats

text: at

text: resting

text: rate

text: close

text: to

text: beats

text: per

text: minute

text: Exercise

text: temporarily

text: increases

text: the

text: rate

text: but

text: lowers

text: resting

text: heart

text: rate

text: in

text: the

text: long

text: term

text: and

text: is

text: good

text: for

text: heart

text: health

text: Cardiovascular

text: diseases

text: CVD

text: are

text: the

text: most

text: common

text: cause

text: of

text: death

text: globally

text: as

text: of

text: accounting

text: for

text: of

text: deaths

text: Of

text: these

text: more

text: than

text: three

text: quarters

text: are

text: result

text: of

text: coronary

text: artery

text: disease

text: and

text: stroke

text: Risk

text: factors

text: include

text: smoking

text: being

text: overweight

text: little

text: exercise

text: high

text: cholesterol

text: high

text: blood

text: pressure

text: and

text: poorly

text: controlled

text: diabetes

text: among

text: others

text: Cardiovascular

text: diseases

text: frequently

text: have

text: no

text: symptoms

text: or

text: may

text: cause

text: chest

text: pain

text: or

text: shortness

text: of

text: breath

text: Diagnosis

text: of

text: heart

text: disease

text: is

text: often

text: done

text: by

text: the

text: taking

text: of

text: medical

text: history

text: listening

text: to

text: the

text: heart

text: sounds

text: with

text: stethoscope

text: ECG

text: and

text: ultrasound

text: Specialists

text: who

text: focus

text: on

text: diseases

text: of

text: the

text: heart

text: are

text: called

text: cardiologists

text: although

text: many

text: specialties

text: of

text: medicine

text: may

text: be

text: involved

text: in

text: treatment

text: A clade (from , "klados", "branch") is a group of organisms that consists of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants, and represents a single "branch" on the "tree of life".

text: clade

text: from

text: klados

text: branch

text: is

text: group

text: of

text: organisms

text: that

text: consists

text: of

text: common

text: ancestor

text: and

text: all

text: its

text: lineal

text: descendants

text: and

text: represents

text: single

text: branch

text: on

text: the

text: tree

text: of

text: life

text: Flightless birds are birds that through evolution lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species including the well known ratites (ostrich, emu, cassowary, rhea and kiwi) and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the Inaccessible Island rail (length 12.5 cm, weight 34.7 g). The largest (both heaviest and tallest) flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird, is the ostrich (2.7 m, 156 kg). Ostriches are farmed for their decorative feathers, meat and their skins, which are used to make leather.

text: Flightless

text: birds

text: are

text: birds

text: that

text: through

text: evolution

text: lost

text: the

text: ability

text: to

text: fly

text: There

text: are

text: over

text: extant

text: species

text: including

text: the

text: well

text: known

text: ratites

text: ostrich

text: emu

text: cassowary

text: rhea

text: and

text: kiwi

text: and

text: penguins

text: The

text: smallest

text: flightless

text: bird

text: is

text: the

text: Inaccessible

text: Island

text: rail

text: length

text: cm

text: weight

text: The

text: largest

text: both

text: heaviest

text: and

text: tallest

text: flightless

text: bird

text: which

text: is

text: also

text: the

text: largest

text: living

text: bird

text: is

text: the

text: ostrich

text: kg

text: Ostriches

text: are

text: farmed

text: for

text: their

text: decorative

text: feathers

text: meat

text: and

text: their

text: skins

text: which

text: are

text: used

text: to

text: make

text: leather

text: Autonomous city is a type of autonomous administrative division.

text: Autonomous

text: city

text: is

text: type

text: of

text: autonomous

text: administrative

text: division

text: Birds (Aves), also known as avian dinosaurs, are a group of endothermic vertebrates, characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the bee hummingbird to the ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at approximately ten thousand, with more than half of these being passerines, sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds.

text: Birds

text: Aves

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: avian

text: dinosaurs

text: are

text: group

text: of

text: endothermic

text: vertebrates

text: characterised

text: by

text: feathers

text: toothless

text: beaked

text: jaws

text: the

text: laying

text: of

text: hard

text: shelled

text: eggs

text: high

text: metabolic

text: rate

text: four

text: chambered

text: heart

text: and

text: lightweight

text: but

text: strong

text: skeleton

text: Birds

text: live

text: worldwide

text: and

text: range

text: in

text: size

text: from

text: the

text: bee

text: hummingbird

text: to

text: the

text: ostrich

text: They

text: rank

text: as

text: the

text: class

text: of

text: tetrapods

text: with

text: the

text: most

text: living

text: species

text: at

text: approximately

text: ten

text: thousand

text: with

text: more

text: than

text: half

text: of

text: these

text: being

text: passerines

text: sometimes

text: known

text: as

text: perching

text: birds

text: or

text: less

text: accurately

text: as

text: songbirds

text: In biology, a species (abbreviated sp., with the plural form species abbreviated spp.) is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is often problematic. For example, in a species complex, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear or disappear altogether. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, or ecological niche. The presence of locally adaptive traits may further subdivide species into infraspecific taxa such as subspecies.

text: In

text: biology

text: species

text: abbreviated

text: sp

text: with

text: the

text: plural

text: form

text: species

text: abbreviated

text: spp

text: is

text: the

text: basic

text: unit

text: of

text: biological

text: classification

text: and

text: taxonomic

text: rank

text: species

text: is

text: often

text: defined

text: as

text: the

text: largest

text: group

text: of

text: organisms

text: in

text: which

text: two

text: individuals

text: can

text: produce

text: fertile

text: offspring

text: typically

text: by

text: sexual

text: reproduction

text: While

text: this

text: definition

text: is

text: often

text: adequate

text: looked

text: at

text: more

text: closely

text: it

text: is

text: often

text: problematic

text: For

text: example

text: in

text: species

text: complex

text: the

text: boundaries

text: between

text: closely

text: related

text: species

text: become

text: unclear

text: or

text: disappear

text: altogether

text: Other

text: ways

text: of

text: defining

text: species

text: include

text: similarity

text: of

text: DNA

text: morphology

text: or

text: ecological

text: niche

text: The

text: presence

text: of

text: locally

text: adaptive

text: traits

text: may

text: further

text: subdivide

text: species

text: into

text: infraspecific

text: taxa

text: such

text: as

text: subspecies

text: Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata (River of Silver) to the south and with the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the metropolitan area of its capital and largest city, Montevideo. With an area of approximately , Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname.

text: Uruguay

text: officially

text: the

text: Oriental

text: Republic

text: of

text: Uruguay

text: is

text: country

text: in

text: the

text: southeastern

text: region

text: of

text: South

text: America

text: It

text: borders

text: Argentina

text: to

text: its

text: west

text: and

text: Brazil

text: to

text: its

text: north

text: and

text: east

text: with

text: the

text: Río

text: de

text: la

text: Plata

text: River

text: of

text: Silver

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: and

text: with

text: the

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: to

text: the

text: southeast

text: Uruguay

text: is

text: home

text: to

text: an

text: estimated

text: million

text: people

text: of

text: whom

text: million

text: live

text: in

text: the

text: metropolitan

text: area

text: of

text: its

text: capital

text: and

text: largest

text: city

text: Montevideo

text: With

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: approximately

text: Uruguay

text: is

text: geographically

text: the

text: second

text: smallest

text: nation

text: in

text: South

text: America

text: only

text: larger

text: in

text: size

text: than

text: Suriname

text: Hummingbirds are birds from the Americas that constitute the family Trochilidae. They are among the smallest of birds, most species measuring . Indeed, the smallest extant bird species is a hummingbird, the 5-cm bee hummingbird weighing less than a U.S. penny (2.5 g).

text: Hummingbirds

text: are

text: birds

text: from

text: the

text: Americas

text: that

text: constitute

text: the

text: family

text: Trochilidae

text: They

text: are

text: among

text: the

text: smallest

text: of

text: birds

text: most

text: species

text: measuring

text: Indeed

text: the

text: smallest

text: extant

text: bird

text: species

text: is

text: hummingbird

text: the

text: bee

text: hummingbird

text: weighing

text: less

text: than

text: U.S.

text: penny

text: Devincenzia pozzi is an extinct giant flightless predatory bird in the family Phorusrhacidae or `` terror birds '' that lived from 7 until 5 million years ago in Argentina and Uruguay during the late Miocene and early Pliocene . D. pozzi was formerly known as Onactornis pozzi . It stood about 2.5 metres tall .

text: Devincenzia

text: pozzi

text: is

text: an

text: extinct

text: giant

text: flightless

text: predatory

text: bird

text: in

text: the

text: family

text: Phorusrhacidae

text: or

text: terror

text: birds

text: that

text: lived

text: from

text: until

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: in

text: Argentina

text: and

text: Uruguay

text: during

text: the

text: late

text: Miocene

text: and

text: early

text: Pliocene

text: pozzi

text: was

text: formerly

text: known

text: as

text: Onactornis

text: pozzi

text: It

text: stood

text: about

text: metres

text: tall

text: Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic. Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research, the current scientific consensus places their origin between 231 and 243 million years ago. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the TriassicJurassic extinction event 201 million years ago. Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the CretaceousPaleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago.

text: Dinosaurs

text: are

text: diverse

text: group

text: of

text: animals

text: of

text: the

text: clade

text: Dinosauria

text: that

text: first

text: appeared

text: during

text: the

text: Triassic

text: Although

text: the

text: exact

text: origin

text: and

text: timing

text: of

text: the

text: evolution

text: of

text: dinosaurs

text: is

text: the

text: subject

text: of

text: active

text: research

text: the

text: current

text: scientific

text: consensus

text: places

text: their

text: origin

text: between

text: and

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: They

text: became

text: the

text: dominant

text: terrestrial

text: vertebrates

text: after

text: the

text: TriassicJurassic

text: extinction

text: event

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: Their

text: dominance

text: continued

text: through

text: the

text: Jurassic

text: and

text: Cretaceous

text: periods

text: and

text: ended

text: when

text: the

text: CretaceousPaleogene

text: extinction

text: event

text: led

text: to

text: the

text: extinction

text: of

text: most

text: dinosaur

text: groups

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the world's fifth-largest country by both area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language and the only one in the Americas. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of . It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest and debate regarding deforestation and environmental protection.

text: Brazil

text: officially

text: the

text: Federative

text: Republic

text: of

text: Brazil

text: is

text: the

text: largest

text: country

text: in

text: both

text: South

text: America

text: and

text: Latin

text: America

text: As

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: fifth

text: largest

text: country

text: by

text: both

text: area

text: and

text: population

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: largest

text: country

text: to

text: have

text: Portuguese

text: as

text: an

text: official

text: language

text: and

text: the

text: only

text: one

text: in

text: the

text: Americas

text: Bounded

text: by

text: the

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: on

text: the

text: east

text: Brazil

text: has

text: coastline

text: of

text: It

text: borders

text: all

text: other

text: South

text: American

text: countries

text: except

text: Ecuador

text: and

text: Chile

text: and

text: covers

text: of

text: the

text: continent

text: 's

text: land

text: area

text: Its

text: Amazon

text: River

text: basin

text: includes

text: vast

text: tropical

text: forest

text: home

text: to

text: diverse

text: wildlife

text: variety

text: of

text: ecological

text: systems

text: and

text: extensive

text: natural

text: resources

text: spanning

text: numerous

text: protected

text: habitats

text: This

text: unique

text: environmental

text: heritage

text: makes

text: Brazil

text: one

text: of

text: megadiverse

text: countries

text: and

text: is

text: the

text: subject

text: of

text: significant

text: global

text: interest

text: and

text: debate

text: regarding

text: deforestation

text: and

text: environmental

text: protection

text: A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. A country may be an independent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state, as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region associated with sets of previously independent or differently associated people with distinct political characteristics. Regardless of the physical geography, in the modern internationally accepted legal definition as defined by the League of Nations in 1937 and reaffirmed by the United Nations in 1945, a resident of a country is subject to the independent exercise of legal jurisdiction.

text: country

text: is

text: region

text: that

text: is

text: identified

text: as

text: distinct

text: national

text: entity

text: in

text: political

text: geography

text: country

text: may

text: be

text: an

text: independent

text: sovereign

text: state

text: or

text: one

text: that

text: is

text: occupied

text: by

text: another

text: state

text: as

text: non

text: sovereign

text: or

text: formerly

text: sovereign

text: political

text: division

text: or

text: geographic

text: region

text: associated

text: with

text: sets

text: of

text: previously

text: independent

text: or

text: differently

text: associated

text: people

text: with

text: distinct

text: political

text: characteristics

text: Regardless

text: of

text: the

text: physical

text: geography

text: in

text: the

text: modern

text: internationally

text: accepted

text: legal

text: definition

text: as

text: defined

text: by

text: the

text: League

text: of

text: Nations

text: in

text: and

text: reaffirmed

text: by

text: the

text: United

text: Nations

text: in

text: resident

text: of

text: country

text: is

text: subject

text: to

text: the

text: independent

text: exercise

text: of

text: legal

text: jurisdiction

text: Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Americas where Romance languages are predominant. The term originated in 19th century France as "Amérique latine" to consider French-speaking territories in the Americas (Haiti, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy) along with the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed. It is therefore broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic Americathough it usually excludes French Canada and modern French Louisiana.

text: Latin

text: America

text: is

text: group

text: of

text: countries

text: and

text: dependencies

text: in

text: the

text: Americas

text: where

text: Romance

text: languages

text: are

text: predominant

text: The

text: term

text: originated

text: in

text: century

text: France

text: as

text: Amérique

text: latine

text: to

text: consider

text: French

text: speaking

text: territories

text: in

text: the

text: Americas

text: Haiti

text: French

text: Guiana

text: Martinique

text: Guadeloupe

text: Saint

text: Martin

text: Saint

text: Barthélemy

text: along

text: with

text: the

text: larger

text: group

text: of

text: countries

text: where

text: Spanish

text: and

text: Portuguese

text: languages

text: prevailed

text: It

text: is

text: therefore

text: broader

text: than

text: the

text: terms

text: Ibero

text: America

text: or

text: Hispanic

text: Americathough

text: it

text: usually

text: excludes

text: French

text: Canada

text: and

text: modern

text: French

text: Louisiana

text: The superclass Tetrapoda (Ancient Greek s tetrapods, "four-footed"), or the tetrapods , comprises the first four-limbed vertebrates and their descendants, including the living and extinct amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles and some ancient, exclusively aquatic creatures such as the Acanthostega. Tetrapods evolved from the lobe-finned fishes around 390 million years ago in the middle Devonian Period, with modern tetrapod groups having appeared by the late Devonian, 367.5 million years ago. The specific aquatic ancestors of the tetrapods, and the process by which land colonization occurred, remain unclear, and are areas of active research and debate among palaeontologists at present.

text: The

text: superclass

text: Tetrapoda

text: Ancient

text: Greek

text: tetrapods

text: four

text: footed

text: or

text: the

text: tetrapods

text: comprises

text: the

text: first

text: four

text: limbed

text: vertebrates

text: and

text: their

text: descendants

text: including

text: the

text: living

text: and

text: extinct

text: amphibians

text: birds

text: mammals

text: reptiles

text: and

text: some

text: ancient

text: exclusively

text: aquatic

text: creatures

text: such

text: as

text: the

text: Acanthostega

text: Tetrapods

text: evolved

text: from

text: the

text: lobe

text: finned

text: fishes

text: around

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: in

text: the

text: middle

text: Devonian

text: Period

text: with

text: modern

text: tetrapod

text: groups

text: having

text: appeared

text: by

text: the

text: late

text: Devonian

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: The

text: specific

text: aquatic

text: ancestors

text: of

text: the

text: tetrapods

text: and

text: the

text: process

text: by

text: which

text: land

text: colonization

text: occurred

text: remain

text: unclear

text: and

text: are

text: areas

text: of

text: active

text: research

text: and

text: debate

text: among

text: palaeontologists

text: at

text: present

text: The Pliocene (also Pleiocene) Epoch is the epoch in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years BP. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch. Prior to the 2009 revision of the geologic time scale, which placed the four most recent major glaciations entirely within the Pleistocene, the Pliocene also included the Gelasian stage, which lasted from 2.588 to 1.806 million years ago, and is now included in the Pleistocene.

text: The

text: Pliocene

text: also

text: Pleiocene

text: Epoch

text: is

text: the

text: epoch

text: in

text: the

text: geologic

text: timescale

text: that

text: extends

text: from

text: million

text: to

text: million

text: years

text: BP

text: It

text: is

text: the

text: second

text: and

text: youngest

text: epoch

text: of

text: the

text: Neogene

text: Period

text: in

text: the

text: Cenozoic

text: Era

text: The

text: Pliocene

text: follows

text: the

text: Miocene

text: Epoch

text: and

text: is

text: followed

text: by

text: the

text: Pleistocene

text: Epoch

text: Prior

text: to

text: the

text: revision

text: of

text: the

text: geologic

text: time

text: scale

text: which

text: placed

text: the

text: four

text: most

text: recent

text: major

text: glaciations

text: entirely

text: within

text: the

text: Pleistocene

text: the

text: Pliocene

text: also

text: included

text: the

text: Gelasian

text: stage

text: which

text: lasted

text: from

text: to

text: million

text: years

text: ago

text: and

text: is

text: now

text: included

text: in

text: the

text: Pleistocene

text:
A passerine is any bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. A notable feature of passerines compared to other orders of Aves is the arrangement of their toes, three pointing forward and one back, which facilitates perching. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders, with over 5,000 identified species. It has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. It contains more than 110 families, the second-most of any order of tetrapods (after Squamata, the scaled reptiles).
The passerines contain several groups of brood parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches, and the cowbirds. Most passerines are omnivorous, while the shrikes are carnivorous.

text: passerine

text: is

text: any

text: bird

text: of

text: the

text: order

text: Passeriformes

text: which

text: includes

text: more

text: than

text: half

text: of

text: all

text: bird

text: species

text: notable

text: feature

text: of

text: passerines

text: compared

text: to

text: other

text: orders

text: of

text: Aves

text: is

text: the

text: arrangement

text: of

text: their

text: toes

text: three

text: pointing

text: forward

text: and

text: one

text: back

text: which

text: facilitates

text: perching

text: Sometimes

text: known

text: as

text: perching

text: birds

text: or

text: less

text: accurately

text: as

text: songbirds

text: the

text: passerines

text: form

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: most

text: diverse

text: terrestrial

text: vertebrate

text: orders

text: with

text: over

text: identified

text: species

text: It

text: has

text: roughly

text: twice

text: as

text: many

text: species

text: as

text: the

text: largest

text: of

text: the

text: mammal

text: orders

text: the

text: Rodentia

text: It

text: contains

text: more

text: than

text: families

text: the

text: second

text: most

text: of

text: any

text: order

text: of

text: tetrapods

text: after

text: Squamata

text: the

text: scaled

text: reptiles

text: The

text: passerines

text: contain

text: several

text: groups

text: of

text: brood

text: parasites

text: such

text: as

text: the

text: viduas

text: cuckoo

text: finches

text: and

text: the

text: cowbirds

text: Most

text: passerines

text: are

text: omnivorous

text: while

text: the

text: shrikes

text: are

text: carnivorous

text: An apex predator, also known as an alpha predator or apical predator, is a predator residing at the top of a food chain upon which no other creatures prey. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that apex-predator species occupy the highest trophic level or levels and play a crucial role in maintaining the health of their ecosystems. One study of marine food webs defined apex predators as greater than trophic level four. The apex predator concept is commonly applied in wildlife management, conservation and ecotourism.

text: An

text: apex

text: predator

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: an

text: alpha

text: predator

text: or

text: apical

text: predator

text: is

text: predator

text: residing

text: at

text: the

text: top

text: of

text: food

text: chain

text: upon

text: which

text: no

text: other

text: creatures

text: prey

text: Apex

text: predators

text: are

text: usually

text: defined

text: in

text: terms

text: of

text: trophic

text: dynamics

text: meaning

text: that

text: apex

text: predator

text: species

text: occupy

text: the

text: highest

text: trophic

text: level

text: or

text: levels

text: and

text: play

text: crucial

text: role

text: in

text: maintaining

text: the

text: health

text: of

text: their

text: ecosystems

text: One

text: study

text: of

text: marine

text: food

text: webs

text: defined

text: apex

text: predators

text: as

text: greater

text: than

text: trophic

text: level

text: four

text: The

text: apex

text: predator

text: concept

text: is

text: commonly

text: applied

text: in

text: wildlife

text: management

text: conservation

text: and

text: ecotourism

text: A province is almost always an administrative division, within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman "provincia", which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The term province has since been adopted by many countries, and in those with no actual provinces, it has come to mean "outside the capital city". While some provinces were produced artificially by colonial powers, others were formed around local groups with their own ethnic identities. Many have their own powers independent of federal authority, especially in Canada. In other countries, like China, provinces are the creation of central government, with very little autonomy.

text: province

text: is

text: almost

text: always

text: an

text: administrative

text: division

text: within

text: country

text: or

text: state

text: The

text: term

text: derives

text: from

text: the

text: ancient

text: Roman

text: provincia

text: which

text: was

text: the

text: major

text: territorial

text: and

text: administrative

text: unit

text: of

text: the

text: Roman

text: Empire

text: 's

text: territorial

text: possessions

text: outside

text: Italy

text: The

text: term

text: province

text: has

text: since

text: been

text: adopted

text: by

text: many

text: countries

text: and

text: in

text: those

text: with

text: no

text: actual

text: provinces

text: it

text: has

text: come

text: to

text: mean

text: outside

text: the

text: capital

text: city

text: While

text: some

text: provinces

text: were

text: produced

text: artificially

text: by

text: colonial

text: powers

text: others

text: were

text: formed

text: around

text: local

text: groups

text: with

text: their

text: own

text: ethnic

text: identities

text: Many

text: have

text: their

text: own

text: powers

text: independent

text: of

text: federal

text: authority

text: especially

text: in

text: Canada

text: In

text: other

text: countries

text: like

text: China

text: provinces

text: are

text: the

text: creation

text: of

text: central

text: government

text: with

text: very

text: little

text: autonomy

question: taxon_rank devincenzia

answer: genus

text: genus


text: A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities (with municipal charters) or universities and learned societies. Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum. The British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence. The earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, on 7 April 2011.

text: royal

text: charter

text: is

text: formal

text: document

text: issued

text: by

text: monarch

text: as

text: letters

text: patent

text: granting

text: right

text: or

text: power

text: to

text: an

text: individual

text: or

text: body

text: corporate

text: They

text: were

text: and

text: are

text: still

text: used

text: to

text: establish

text: significant

text: organisations

text: such

text: as

text: cities

text: with

text: municipal

text: charters

text: or

text: universities

text: and

text: learned

text: societies

text: Charters

text: should

text: be

text: distinguished

text: from

text: warrants

text: and

text: letters

text: of

text: appointment

text: as

text: they

text: have

text: perpetual

text: effect

text: Typically

text: Royal

text: Charter

text: is

text: produced

text: as

text: high

text: quality

text: work

text: of

text: calligraphy

text: on

text: vellum

text: The

text: British

text: monarchy

text: has

text: issued

text: over

text: royal

text: charters

text: Of

text: these

text: about

text: remain

text: in

text: existence

text: The

text: earliest

text: was

text: to

text: the

text: town

text: of

text: Tain

text: in

text: making

text: it

text: the

text: oldest

text: Royal

text: Burgh

text: in

text: Scotland

text: followed

text: by

text: the

text: University

text: of

text: Cambridge

text: in

text: Charters

text: continue

text: to

text: be

text: issued

text: by

text: the

text: British

text: Crown

text: recent

text: example

text: being

text: that

text: awarded

text: to

text: the

text: Chartered

text: Institute

text: for

text: the

text: Management

text: of

text: Sport

text: and

text: Physical

text: Activity

text: on

text: April

text: Toronto is the most populous city in Canada, the provincial capital of Ontario, and the centre of the Greater Toronto Area, the most populous metropolitan area in Canada. Growing in population, the 2011 census recorded a population of 2,615,060. As of 2015, the population is now estimated at 2,826,498, making Toronto the fourth-largest city in North America based on the population within its city limits. Toronto trails only Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles by this measure, while it is the fifth-largest (behind also Chicago) if ranked by the size of its metropolitan area . An established global city, Toronto is an international centre of business, finance, arts, and culture, and widely recognized as one of the most multicultural and cosmopolitan cities in the world.

text: Toronto

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: city

text: in

text: Canada

text: the

text: provincial

text: capital

text: of

text: Ontario

text: and

text: the

text: centre

text: of

text: the

text: Greater

text: Toronto

text: Area

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: metropolitan

text: area

text: in

text: Canada

text: Growing

text: in

text: population

text: the

text: census

text: recorded

text: population

text: of

text: As

text: of

text: the

text: population

text: is

text: now

text: estimated

text: at

text: making

text: Toronto

text: the

text: fourth

text: largest

text: city

text: in

text: North

text: America

text: based

text: on

text: the

text: population

text: within

text: its

text: city

text: limits

text: Toronto

text: trails

text: only

text: Mexico

text: City

text: New

text: York

text: City

text: and

text: Los

text: Angeles

text: by

text: this

text: measure

text: while

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: fifth

text: largest

text: behind

text: also

text: Chicago

text: if

text: ranked

text: by

text: the

text: size

text: of

text: its

text: metropolitan

text: area

text: An

text: established

text: global

text: city

text: Toronto

text: is

text: an

text: international

text: centre

text: of

text: business

text: finance

text: arts

text: and

text: culture

text: and

text: widely

text: recognized

text: as

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: most

text: multicultural

text: and

text: cosmopolitan

text: cities

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: The Church of England (C of E) is the Anglican Christian state church of England. Headed by the Archbishop of Canterbury (currently Justin Welby) and primarily governed from London with the monarch as the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. The church dates its formal establishment as a national church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission in Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury, with considerable features introduced and established during and following the English Reformation in the 16th century.

text: The

text: Church

text: of

text: England

text: of

text: is

text: the

text: Anglican

text: Christian

text: state

text: church

text: of

text: England

text: Headed

text: by

text: the

text: Archbishop

text: of

text: Canterbury

text: currently

text: Justin

text: Welby

text: and

text: primarily

text: governed

text: from

text: London

text: with

text: the

text: monarch

text: as

text: the

text: supreme

text: governor

text: the

text: Church

text: of

text: England

text: is

text: also

text: the

text: mother

text: church

text: of

text: the

text: international

text: Anglican

text: Communion

text: The

text: church

text: dates

text: its

text: formal

text: establishment

text: as

text: national

text: church

text: to

text: the

text: century

text: Gregorian

text: mission

text: in

text: Kent

text: led

text: by

text: Augustine

text: of

text: Canterbury

text: with

text: considerable

text: features

text: introduced

text: and

text: established

text: during

text: and

text: following

text: the

text: English

text: Reformation

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: Canada (French: ) is a country in the northern half of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering , making it the world's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area. Canada's border with the United States is the world's longest land border. The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains. About four-fifths of the country's population of 36 million people is urbanized and live near the southern border. Its capital is Ottawa, its largest city is Toronto; other major urban areas include Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg and Hamilton.

text: Canada

text: French

text: is

text: country

text: in

text: the

text: northern

text: half

text: of

text: North

text: America

text: Its

text: ten

text: provinces

text: and

text: three

text: territories

text: extend

text: from

text: the

text: Atlantic

text: to

text: the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: northward

text: into

text: the

text: Arctic

text: Ocean

text: covering

text: making

text: it

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: second

text: largest

text: country

text: by

text: total

text: area

text: and

text: the

text: fourth

text: largest

text: country

text: by

text: land

text: area

text: Canada

text: 's

text: border

text: with

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: is

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: longest

text: land

text: border

text: The

text: majority

text: of

text: the

text: country

text: has

text: cold

text: or

text: severely

text: cold

text: winter

text: climate

text: but

text: southerly

text: areas

text: are

text: warm

text: in

text: summer

text: Canada

text: is

text: sparsely

text: populated

text: the

text: majority

text: of

text: its

text: land

text: territory

text: being

text: dominated

text: by

text: forest

text: and

text: tundra

text: and

text: the

text: Rocky

text: Mountains

text: About

text: four

text: fifths

text: of

text: the

text: country

text: 's

text: population

text: of

text: million

text: people

text: is

text: urbanized

text: and

text: live

text: near

text: the

text: southern

text: border

text: Its

text: capital

text: is

text: Ottawa

text: its

text: largest

text: city

text: is

text: Toronto

text: other

text: major

text: urban

text: areas

text: include

text: Montreal

text: Vancouver

text: Calgary

text: Edmonton

text: Quebec

text: City

text: Winnipeg

text: and

text: Hamilton

text: Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications." It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a school research project, they can be used to further a student's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological,etc.

text: Research

text: comprises

text: creative

text: work

text: undertaken

text: on

text: systematic

text: basis

text: in

text: order

text: to

text: increase

text: the

text: stock

text: of

text: knowledge

text: including

text: knowledge

text: of

text: humans

text: culture

text: and

text: society

text: and

text: the

text: use

text: of

text: this

text: stock

text: of

text: knowledge

text: to

text: devise

text: new

text: applications

text: It

text: is

text: used

text: to

text: establish

text: or

text: confirm

text: facts

text: reaffirm

text: the

text: results

text: of

text: previous

text: work

text: solve

text: new

text: or

text: existing

text: problems

text: support

text: theorems

text: or

text: develop

text: new

text: theories

text: research

text: project

text: may

text: also

text: be

text: an

text: expansion

text: on

text: past

text: work

text: in

text: the

text: field

text: Research

text: projects

text: can

text: be

text: used

text: to

text: develop

text: further

text: knowledge

text: on

text: topic

text: or

text: in

text: the

text: example

text: of

text: school

text: research

text: project

text: they

text: can

text: be

text: used

text: to

text: further

text: student

text: 's

text: research

text: prowess

text: to

text: prepare

text: them

text: for

text: future

text: jobs

text: or

text: reports

text: To

text: test

text: the

text: validity

text: of

text: instruments

text: procedures

text: or

text: experiments

text: research

text: may

text: replicate

text: elements

text: of

text: prior

text: projects

text: or

text: the

text: project

text: as

text: whole

text: The

text: primary

text: purposes

text: of

text: basic

text: research

text: as

text: opposed

text: to

text: applied

text: research

text: are

text: documentation

text: discovery

text: interpretation

text: or

text: the

text: research

text: and

text: development

text: R&D

text: of

text: methods

text: and

text: systems

text: for

text: the

text: advancement

text: of

text: human

text: knowledge

text: Approaches

text: to

text: research

text: depend

text: on

text: epistemologies

text: which

text: vary

text: considerably

text: both

text: within

text: and

text: between

text: humanities

text: and

text: sciences

text: There

text: are

text: several

text: forms

text: of

text: research

text: scientific

text: humanities

text: artistic

text: economic

text: social

text: business

text: marketing

text: practitioner

text: research

text: life

text: technological

text: etc

text: A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories, intensional definitions (which try to give the essence of a term) and extensional definitions (which proceed by listing the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions.

text: definition

text: is

text: statement

text: of

text: the

text: meaning

text: of

text: term

text: word

text: phrase

text: or

text: other

text: set

text: of

text: symbols

text: Definitions

text: can

text: be

text: classified

text: into

text: two

text: large

text: categories

text: intensional

text: definitions

text: which

text: try

text: to

text: give

text: the

text: essence

text: of

text: term

text: and

text: extensional

text: definitions

text: which

text: proceed

text: by

text: listing

text: the

text: objects

text: that

text: term

text: describes

text: Another

text: important

text: category

text: of

text: definitions

text: is

text: the

text: class

text: of

text: ostensive

text: definitions

text: which

text: convey

text: the

text: meaning

text: of

text: term

text: by

text: pointing

text: out

text: examples

text: term

text: may

text: have

text: many

text: different

text: senses

text: and

text: multiple

text: meanings

text: and

text: thus

text: require

text: multiple

text: definitions

text: Information theory studies the quantification, storage, and communication of information. It was originally proposed by Claude E. Shannon in 1948 to find fundamental limits on signal processing and communication operations such as data compression, in a landmark paper entitled "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". Now this theory has found applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography, neurobiology, the evolution and function of molecular codes, model selection in ecology, thermal physics, quantum computing, linguistics, plagiarism detection, pattern recognition, and anomaly detection.

text: Information

text: theory

text: studies

text: the

text: quantification

text: storage

text: and

text: communication

text: of

text: information

text: It

text: was

text: originally

text: proposed

text: by

text: Claude

text: Shannon

text: in

text: to

text: find

text: fundamental

text: limits

text: on

text: signal

text: processing

text: and

text: communication

text: operations

text: such

text: as

text: data

text: compression

text: in

text: landmark

text: paper

text: entitled

text: Mathematical

text: Theory

text: of

text: Communication

text: Now

text: this

text: theory

text: has

text: found

text: applications

text: in

text: many

text: other

text: areas

text: including

text: statistical

text: inference

text: natural

text: language

text: processing

text: cryptography

text: neurobiology

text: the

text: evolution

text: and

text: function

text: of

text: molecular

text: codes

text: model

text: selection

text: in

text: ecology

text: thermal

text: physics

text: quantum

text: computing

text: linguistics

text: plagiarism

text: detection

text: pattern

text: recognition

text: and

text: anomaly

text: detection

text: The IEEE Information Theory Society (ITS or ITSoc), formerly the IEEE Information Theory Group, is a professional society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) focused on several aspects of information: its processing, transmission, storage, and usage; and the "foundations of the communication process".

text: The

text: IEEE

text: Information

text: Theory

text: Society

text: ITS

text: or

text: ITSoc

text: formerly

text: the

text: IEEE

text: Information

text: Theory

text: Group

text: is

text: professional

text: society

text: of

text: the

text: Institute

text: of

text: Electrical

text: and

text: Electronics

text: Engineers

text: IEEE

text: focused

text: on

text: several

text: aspects

text: of

text: information

text: its

text: processing

text: transmission

text: storage

text: and

text: usage

text: and

text: the

text: foundations

text: of

text: the

text: communication

text: process

text: The University of Toronto (U of T, UToronto, or Toronto) is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as "King's College", the first institution of higher learning in the colony of Upper Canada. Originally controlled by the Church of England, the university assumed the present name in 1850 upon becoming a secular institution. As a collegiate university, it comprises twelve colleges, which differ in character and history, each with substantial autonomy on financial and institutional affairs. It has two satellite campuses in Scarborough and Mississauga.

text: The

text: University

text: of

text: Toronto

text: of

text: UToronto

text: or

text: Toronto

text: is

text: public

text: research

text: university

text: in

text: Toronto

text: Ontario

text: Canada

text: on

text: the

text: grounds

text: that

text: surround

text: Queen

text: 's

text: Park

text: It

text: was

text: founded

text: by

text: royal

text: charter

text: in

text: as

text: King

text: 's

text: College

text: the

text: first

text: institution

text: of

text: higher

text: learning

text: in

text: the

text: colony

text: of

text: Upper

text: Canada

text: Originally

text: controlled

text: by

text: the

text: Church

text: of

text: England

text: the

text: university

text: assumed

text: the

text: present

text: name

text: in

text: upon

text: becoming

text: secular

text: institution

text: As

text: collegiate

text: university

text: it

text: comprises

text: twelve

text: colleges

text: which

text: differ

text: in

text: character

text: and

text: history

text: each

text: with

text: substantial

text: autonomy

text: on

text: financial

text: and

text: institutional

text: affairs

text: It

text: has

text: two

text: satellite

text: campuses

text: in

text: Scarborough

text: and

text: Mississauga

text: IEEE Transactions on Information Theory is a monthly peer - reviewed scientific journal published by the IEEE Information Theory Society . It covers information theory and the mathematics of communications . It was established in 1953 as IRE Transactions on Information Theory . The editor - in - chief is Frank R. Kschischang ( University of Toronto ) . As of 2007 , the journal allows the posting of preprints on arXiv .

text: IEEE

text: Transactions

text: on

text: Information

text: Theory

text: is

text: monthly

text: peer

text: reviewed

text: scientific

text: journal

text: published

text: by

text: the

text: IEEE

text: Information

text: Theory

text: Society

text: It

text: covers

text: information

text: theory

text: and

text: the

text: mathematics

text: of

text: communications

text: It

text: was

text: established

text: in

text: as

text: IRE

text: Transactions

text: on

text: Information

text: Theory

text: The

text: editor

text: in

text: chief

text: is

text: Frank

text: Kschischang

text: University

text: of

text: Toronto

text: As

text: of

text: the

text: journal

text: allows

text: the

text: posting

text: of

text: preprints

text: on

text: arXiv

text: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced "I triple E") is a professional association with its corporate office in New York City and its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio Engineers. Today, it is the world's largest association of technical professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering and allied disciplines.

text: The

text: Institute

text: of

text: Electrical

text: and

text: Electronics

text: Engineers

text: IEEE

text: pronounced

text: triple

text: is

text: professional

text: association

text: with

text: its

text: corporate

text: office

text: in

text: New

text: York

text: City

text: and

text: its

text: operations

text: center

text: in

text: Piscataway

text: New

text: Jersey

text: It

text: was

text: formed

text: in

text: from

text: the

text: amalgamation

text: of

text: the

text: American

text: Institute

text: of

text: Electrical

text: Engineers

text: and

text: the

text: Institute

text: of

text: Radio

text: Engineers

text: Today

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: largest

text: association

text: of

text: technical

text: professionals

text: with

text: more

text: than

text: members

text: in

text: chapters

text: around

text: the

text: world

text: Its

text: objectives

text: are

text: the

text: educational

text: and

text: technical

text: advancement

text: of

text: electrical

text: and

text: electronic

text: engineering

text: telecommunications

text: computer

text: engineering

text: and

text: allied

text: disciplines

text: The arXiv (pronounced "archive") is a repository of electronic preprints, known as e-prints, of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, and quantitative finance, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository. Begun on August 14, 1991, arXiv.org passed the half-million article milestone on October 3, 2008, and hit a million by the end of 2014. By 2014 the submission rate had grown to more than 8,000 per month.

text: The

text: arXiv

text: pronounced

text: archive

text: is

text: repository

text: of

text: electronic

text: preprints

text: known

text: as

text: prints

text: of

text: scientific

text: papers

text: in

text: the

text: fields

text: of

text: mathematics

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: computer

text: science

text: quantitative

text: biology

text: statistics

text: and

text: quantitative

text: finance

text: which

text: can

text: be

text: accessed

text: online

text: In

text: many

text: fields

text: of

text: mathematics

text: and

text: physics

text: almost

text: all

text: scientific

text: papers

text: are

text: self

text: archived

text: on

text: the

text: arXiv

text: repository

text: Begun

text: on

text: August

text: arXiv.org

text: passed

text: the

text: half

text: million

text: article

text: milestone

text: on

text: October

text: and

text: hit

text: million

text: by

text: the

text: end

text: of

text: By

text: the

text: submission

text: rate

text: had

text: grown

text: to

text: more

text: than

text: per

text: month

text: The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses". Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment.

text: The

text: scientific

text: method

text: is

text: body

text: of

text: techniques

text: for

text: investigating

text: phenomena

text: acquiring

text: new

text: knowledge

text: or

text: correcting

text: and

text: integrating

text: previous

text: knowledge

text: To

text: be

text: termed

text: scientific

text: method

text: of

text: inquiry

text: is

text: commonly

text: based

text: on

text: empirical

text: or

text: measurable

text: evidence

text: subject

text: to

text: specific

text: principles

text: of

text: reasoning

text: The

text: Oxford

text: Dictionaries

text: Online

text: define

text: the

text: scientific

text: method

text: as

text: method

text: or

text: procedure

text: that

text: has

text: characterized

text: natural

text: science

text: since

text: the

text: century

text: consisting

text: in

text: systematic

text: observation

text: measurement

text: and

text: experiment

text: and

text: the

text: formulation

text: testing

text: and

text: modification

text: of

text: hypotheses

text: Experiments

text: need

text: to

text: be

text: designed

text: to

text: test

text: hypotheses

text: The

text: most

text: important

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: scientific

text: method

text: is

text: the

text: experiment

text: Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest activities in the documentation and description of language have been attributed to the 4th century BCE Indian grammarian Pini who wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his "".

text: Linguistics

text: is

text: the

text: scientific

text: study

text: of

text: language

text: and

text: involves

text: an

text: analysis

text: of

text: language

text: form

text: language

text: meaning

text: and

text: language

text: in

text: context

text: The

text: earliest

text: activities

text: in

text: the

text: documentation

text: and

text: description

text: of

text: language

text: have

text: been

text: attributed

text: to

text: the

text: century

text: BCE

text: Indian

text: grammarian

text: Pini

text: who

text: wrote

text: formal

text: description

text: of

text: the

text: Sanskrit

text: language

text: in

text: his

text: In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past (see list of scientific journals). Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as "Nature" publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific validity. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, and must agree to publish it. Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine. The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results. Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record.

text: In

text: academic

text: publishing

text: scientific

text: journal

text: is

text: periodical

text: publication

text: intended

text: to

text: further

text: the

text: progress

text: of

text: science

text: usually

text: by

text: reporting

text: new

text: research

text: There

text: are

text: thousands

text: of

text: scientific

text: journals

text: in

text: publication

text: and

text: many

text: more

text: have

text: been

text: published

text: at

text: various

text: points

text: in

text: the

text: past

text: see

text: list

text: of

text: scientific

text: journals

text: Most

text: journals

text: are

text: highly

text: specialized

text: although

text: some

text: of

text: the

text: oldest

text: journals

text: such

text: as

text: Nature

text: publish

text: articles

text: and

text: scientific

text: papers

text: across

text: wide

text: range

text: of

text: scientific

text: fields

text: Scientific

text: journals

text: contain

text: articles

text: that

text: have

text: been

text: peer

text: reviewed

text: in

text: an

text: attempt

text: to

text: ensure

text: that

text: articles

text: meet

text: the

text: journal

text: 's

text: standards

text: of

text: quality

text: and

text: scientific

text: validity

text: If

text: the

text: journal

text: 's

text: editor

text: considers

text: the

text: paper

text: appropriate

text: at

text: least

text: two

text: researchers

text: preferably

text: from

text: the

text: same

text: field

text: check

text: the

text: paper

text: for

text: soundness

text: of

text: its

text: scientific

text: argument

text: and

text: must

text: agree

text: to

text: publish

text: it

text: Although

text: scientific

text: journals

text: are

text: superficially

text: similar

text: to

text: professional

text: magazines

text: they

text: are

text: actually

text: quite

text: different

text: Issues

text: of

text: scientific

text: journal

text: are

text: rarely

text: read

text: casually

text: as

text: one

text: would

text: read

text: magazine

text: The

text: publication

text: of

text: the

text: results

text: of

text: research

text: is

text: an

text: essential

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: scientific

text: method

text: If

text: they

text: are

text: describing

text: experiments

text: or

text: calculations

text: they

text: must

text: supply

text: enough

text: details

text: that

text: an

text: independent

text: researcher

text: could

text: repeat

text: the

text: experiment

text: or

text: calculation

text: to

text: verify

text: the

text: results

text: Each

text: such

text: journal

text: article

text: becomes

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: permanent

text: scientific

text: record

text: The Province of Upper Canada was a part of British Canada established in 1791 by the United Kingdom, in order to govern the central third of the lands in British North America and to accommodate Loyalist refugees of the United States after the American Revolution. The new province remained, for the next fifty years of growth and settlement, the colonial government of the territory.

text: The

text: Province

text: of

text: Upper

text: Canada

text: was

text: part

text: of

text: British

text: Canada

text: established

text: in

text: by

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: in

text: order

text: to

text: govern

text: the

text: central

text: third

text: of

text: the

text: lands

text: in

text: British

text: North

text: America

text: and

text: to

text: accommodate

text: Loyalist

text: refugees

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: after

text: the

text: American

text: Revolution

text: The

text: new

text: province

text: remained

text: for

text: the

text: next

text: fifty

text: years

text: of

text: growth

text: and

text: settlement

text: the

text: colonial

text: government

text: of

text: the

text: territory

text: Pattern recognition is a branch of machine learning that focuses on the recognition of patterns and regularities in data, although it is in some cases considered to be nearly synonymous with machine learning. Pattern recognition systems are in many cases trained from labeled "training" data (supervised learning), but when no labeled data are available other algorithms can be used to discover previously unknown patterns (unsupervised learning).

text: Pattern

text: recognition

text: is

text: branch

text: of

text: machine

text: learning

text: that

text: focuses

text: on

text: the

text: recognition

text: of

text: patterns

text: and

text: regularities

text: in

text: data

text: although

text: it

text: is

text: in

text: some

text: cases

text: considered

text: to

text: be

text: nearly

text: synonymous

text: with

text: machine

text: learning

text: Pattern

text: recognition

text: systems

text: are

text: in

text: many

text: cases

text: trained

text: from

text: labeled

text: training

text: data

text: supervised

text: learning

text: but

text: when

text: no

text: labeled

text: data

text: are

text: available

text: other

text: algorithms

text: can

text: be

text: used

text: to

text: discover

text: previously

text: unknown

text: patterns

text: unsupervised

text: learning

text: Mathematics (from Greek  "máthma", knowledge, study, learning) is the study of topics such as quantity (numbers), structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics.

text: Mathematics

text: from

text: Greek

text: máthma

text: knowledge

text: study

text: learning

text: is

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: topics

text: such

text: as

text: quantity

text: numbers

text: structure

text: space

text: and

text: change

text: There

text: is

text: range

text: of

text: views

text: among

text: mathematicians

text: and

text: philosophers

text: as

text: to

text: the

text: exact

text: scope

text: and

text: definition

text: of

text: mathematics

text: Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications and the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical procedures (or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to information. An alternate, more succinct definition of computer science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.

text: Computer

text: science

text: is

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: the

text: theory

text: experimentation

text: and

text: engineering

text: that

text: form

text: the

text: basis

text: for

text: the

text: design

text: and

text: use

text: of

text: computers

text: It

text: is

text: the

text: scientific

text: and

text: practical

text: approach

text: to

text: computation

text: and

text: its

text: applications

text: and

text: the

text: systematic

text: study

text: of

text: the

text: feasibility

text: structure

text: expression

text: and

text: mechanization

text: of

text: the

text: methodical

text: procedures

text: or

text: algorithms

text: that

text: underlie

text: the

text: acquisition

text: representation

text: processing

text: storage

text: communication

text: of

text: and

text: access

text: to

text: information

text: An

text: alternate

text: more

text: succinct

text: definition

text: of

text: computer

text: science

text: is

text: the

text: study

text: of

text: automating

text: algorithmic

text: processes

text: that

text: scale

text: computer

text: scientist

text: specializes

text: in

text: the

text: theory

text: of

text: computation

text: and

text: the

text: design

text: of

text: computational

text: systems

candidates: institute of electrical and electronics engineers

annotations: follows single

annotations: follows multiple

question: publisher ieee transactions on information theory

answer: institute of electrical and electronics engineers

text: institute of electrical and electronics engineers

text: institute of electrical and electronics engineers