text: Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-ignition internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder does not start off correctly in response to ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.

text: Knocking

text: also

text: knock

text: detonation

text: spark

text: knock

text: pinging

text: or

text: pinking

text: in

text: spark

text: ignition

text: internal

text: combustion

text: engines

text: occurs

text: when

text: combustion

text: of

text: the

text: air

text: fuel

text: mixture

text: in

text: the

text: cylinder

text: does

text: not

text: start

text: off

text: correctly

text: in

text: response

text: to

text: ignition

text: by

text: the

text: spark

text: plug

text: but

text: one

text: or

text: more

text: pockets

text: of

text: air

text: fuel

text: mixture

text: explode

text: outside

text: the

text: envelope

text: of

text: the

text: normal

text: combustion

text: front

text: Structural isomerism, or constitutional isomerism (per IUPAC), is a form of isomerism in which molecules with the same molecular formula have bonded together in different orders, as opposed to stereoisomerism. There are multiple synonyms for constitutional isomers.

text: Structural

text: isomerism

text: or

text: constitutional

text: isomerism

text: per

text: IUPAC

text: is

text: form

text: of

text: isomerism

text: in

text: which

text: molecules

text: with

text: the

text: same

text: molecular

text: formula

text: have

text: bonded

text: together

text: in

text: different

text: orders

text: as

text: opposed

text: to

text: stereoisomerism

text: There

text: are

text: multiple

text: synonyms

text: for

text: constitutional

text: isomers

text: The static compression ratio of an internal-combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity. It is a fundamental specification for many common combustion engines.

text: The

text: static

text: compression

text: ratio

text: of

text: an

text: internal

text: combustion

text: engine

text: or

text: external

text: combustion

text: engine

text: is

text: value

text: that

text: represents

text: the

text: ratio

text: of

text: the

text: volume

text: of

text: its

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: from

text: its

text: largest

text: capacity

text: to

text: its

text: smallest

text: capacity

text: It

text: is

text: fundamental

text: specification

text: for

text: many

text: common

text: combustion

text: engines

text: A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug, and, colloquially, a plug) is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the "side", "earth", or "ground" electrode(s).

text: spark

text: plug

text: sometimes

text: in

text: British

text: English

text: sparking

text: plug

text: and

text: colloquially

text: plug

text: is

text: device

text: for

text: delivering

text: electric

text: current

text: from

text: an

text: ignition

text: system

text: to

text: the

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: of

text: spark

text: ignition

text: engine

text: to

text: ignite

text: the

text: compressed

text: fuel

text: air

text: mixture

text: by

text: an

text: electric

text: spark

text: while

text: containing

text: combustion

text: pressure

text: within

text: the

text: engine

text: spark

text: plug

text: has

text: metal

text: threaded

text: shell

text: electrically

text: isolated

text: from

text: central

text: electrode

text: by

text: porcelain

text: insulator

text: The

text: central

text: electrode

text: which

text: may

text: contain

text: resistor

text: is

text: connected

text: by

text: heavily

text: insulated

text: wire

text: to

text: the

text: output

text: terminal

text: of

text: an

text: ignition

text: coil

text: or

text: magneto

text: The

text: spark

text: plug

text: 's

text: metal

text: shell

text: is

text: screwed

text: into

text: the

text: engine

text: 's

text: cylinder

text: head

text: and

text: thus

text: electrically

text: grounded

text: The

text: central

text: electrode

text: protrudes

text: through

text: the

text: porcelain

text: insulator

text: into

text: the

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: forming

text: one

text: or

text: more

text: spark

text: gaps

text: between

text: the

text: inner

text: end

text: of

text: the

text: central

text: electrode

text: and

text: usually

text: one

text: or

text: more

text: protuberances

text: or

text: structures

text: attached

text: to

text: the

text: inner

text: end

text: of

text: the

text: threaded

text: shell

text: and

text: designated

text: the

text: side

text: earth

text: or

text: ground

text: electrode(s

text: Methane (or ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen). It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane, and is the main constituent of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel, though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure.

text: Methane

text: or

text: is

text: chemical

text: compound

text: with

text: the

text: chemical

text: formula

text: one

text: atom

text: of

text: carbon

text: and

text: four

text: atoms

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: It

text: is

text: group

text: hydride

text: and

text: the

text: simplest

text: alkane

text: and

text: is

text: the

text: main

text: constituent

text: of

text: natural

text: gas

text: The

text: relative

text: abundance

text: of

text: methane

text: on

text: Earth

text: makes

text: it

text: an

text: attractive

text: fuel

text: though

text: capturing

text: and

text: storing

text: it

text: poses

text: challenges

text: due

text: to

text: its

text: gaseous

text: state

text: under

text: normal

text: conditions

text: for

text: temperature

text: and

text: pressure

text: Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components), or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixture's components. In industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction.

text: Distillation

text: is

text: process

text: of

text: separating

text: the

text: component

text: or

text: substances

text: from

text: liquid

text: mixture

text: by

text: selective

text: evaporation

text: and

text: condensation

text: Distillation

text: may

text: result

text: in

text: essentially

text: complete

text: separation

text: nearly

text: pure

text: components

text: or

text: it

text: may

text: be

text: partial

text: separation

text: that

text: increases

text: the

text: concentration

text: of

text: selected

text: components

text: of

text: the

text: mixture

text: In

text: either

text: case

text: the

text: process

text: exploits

text: differences

text: in

text: the

text: volatility

text: of

text: the

text: mixture

text: 's

text: components

text: In

text: industrial

text: chemistry

text: distillation

text: is

text: unit

text: operation

text: of

text: practically

text: universal

text: importance

text: but

text: it

text: is

text: physical

text: separation

text: process

text: and

text: not

text: chemical

text: reaction

text: Gasoline , known as petrol outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives.

text: Gasoline

text: known

text: as

text: petrol

text: outside

text: North

text: America

text: is

text: transparent

text: petroleum

text: derived

text: liquid

text: that

text: is

text: used

text: primarily

text: as

text: fuel

text: in

text: internal

text: combustion

text: engines

text: It

text: consists

text: mostly

text: of

text: organic

text: compounds

text: obtained

text: by

text: the

text: fractional

text: distillation

text: of

text: petroleum

text: enhanced

text: with

text: variety

text: of

text: additives

text: The structural formula of a chemical compound is a graphic representation of the molecular structure, showing how the atoms are arranged. The chemical bonding within the molecule is also shown, either explicitly or implicitly. Unlike chemical formulas, which have a limited number of symbols and are capable of only limited descriptive power, structural formulas provide a complete geometric representation of the molecular structure. For example, many chemical compounds exist in different isomeric forms, which have different enantiomeric structures but the same chemical formula. A structural formula is able to indicate arrangements of atoms in three dimensional space in a way that a chemical formula may not be able to do.

text: The

text: structural

text: formula

text: of

text: chemical

text: compound

text: is

text: graphic

text: representation

text: of

text: the

text: molecular

text: structure

text: showing

text: how

text: the

text: atoms

text: are

text: arranged

text: The

text: chemical

text: bonding

text: within

text: the

text: molecule

text: is

text: also

text: shown

text: either

text: explicitly

text: or

text: implicitly

text: Unlike

text: chemical

text: formulas

text: which

text: have

text: limited

text: number

text: of

text: symbols

text: and

text: are

text: capable

text: of

text: only

text: limited

text: descriptive

text: power

text: structural

text: formulas

text: provide

text: complete

text: geometric

text: representation

text: of

text: the

text: molecular

text: structure

text: For

text: example

text: many

text: chemical

text: compounds

text: exist

text: in

text: different

text: isomeric

text: forms

text: which

text: have

text: different

text: enantiomeric

text: structures

text: but

text: the

text: same

text: chemical

text: formula

text: structural

text: formula

text: is

text: able

text: to

text: indicate

text: arrangements

text: of

text: atoms

text: in

text: three

text: dimensional

text: space

text: in

text: way

text: that

text: chemical

text: formula

text: may

text: not

text: be

text: able

text: to

text: do

text: A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).

text: fuel

text: is

text: any

text: material

text: that

text: can

text: be

text: made

text: to

text: react

text: with

text: other

text: substances

text: so

text: that

text: it

text: releases

text: chemical

text: or

text: nuclear

text: energy

text: as

text: heat

text: or

text: to

text: be

text: used

text: for

text: work

text: The

text: concept

text: was

text: originally

text: applied

text: solely

text: to

text: those

text: materials

text: capable

text: of

text: releasing

text: chemical

text: energy

text: but

text: has

text: since

text: also

text: been

text: applied

text: to

text: other

text: sources

text: of

text: heat

text: energy

text: such

text: as

text: nuclear

text: energy

text: via

text: nuclear

text: fission

text: and

text: nuclear

text: fusion

text: In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon-carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula . The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of methane, CH where "n" = 1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large molecules.

text: In

text: organic

text: chemistry

text: an

text: alkane

text: or

text: paraffin

text: historical

text: name

text: that

text: also

text: has

text: other

text: meanings

text: is

text: an

text: acyclic

text: saturated

text: hydrocarbon

text: In

text: other

text: words

text: an

text: alkane

text: consists

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: atoms

text: arranged

text: in

text: tree

text: structure

text: in

text: which

text: all

text: the

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: bonds

text: are

text: single

text: Alkanes

text: have

text: the

text: general

text: chemical

text: formula

text: The

text: alkanes

text: range

text: in

text: complexity

text: from

text: the

text: simplest

text: case

text: of

text: methane

text: CH

text: where

text: sometimes

text: called

text: the

text: parent

text: molecule

text: to

text: arbitrarily

text: large

text: molecules

text: n - Heptane is the straight - chain alkane with the chemical formula H3C ( CH2 ) 5CH3 or C7H16 . When used as a test fuel component in anti-knock test engines , a 100 % heptane fuel is the zero point of the octane rating scale ( the 100 point is a 100 % iso - octane ) . Octane number equates to the anti-knock qualities of a comparison mixture of heptane and isooctane which is expressed as the percentage of isooctane in heptane and is listed on pumps for gasoline dispensed in the United States and internationally .

text: Heptane

text: is

text: the

text: straight

text: chain

text: alkane

text: with

text: the

text: chemical

text: formula

text: or

text: When

text: used

text: as

text: test

text: fuel

text: component

text: in

text: anti

text: knock

text: test

text: engines

text: heptane

text: fuel

text: is

text: the

text: zero

text: point

text: of

text: the

text: octane

text: rating

text: scale

text: the

text: point

text: is

text: iso

text: octane

text: Octane

text: number

text: equates

text: to

text: the

text: anti

text: knock

text: qualities

text: of

text: comparison

text: mixture

text: of

text: heptane

text: and

text: isooctane

text: which

text: is

text: expressed

text: as

text: the

text: percentage

text: of

text: isooctane

text: in

text: heptane

text: and

text: is

text: listed

text: on

text: pumps

text: for

text: gasoline

text: dispensed

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: internationally

text: An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by either chemical or physical means, via ionization.

text: An

text: ion

text: is

text: an

text: atom

text: or

text: molecule

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: total

text: number

text: of

text: electrons

text: is

text: not

text: equal

text: to

text: the

text: total

text: number

text: of

text: protons

text: giving

text: the

text: atom

text: or

text: molecule

text: net

text: positive

text: or

text: negative

text: electrical

text: charge

text: Ions

text: can

text: be

text: created

text: by

text: either

text: chemical

text: or

text: physical

text: means

text: via

text: ionization

text: An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating (igniting). In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane rating are used in high performance gasoline engines that require higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with lower octane numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal for diesel engines, because diesel engines (also referred to as compression-ignition engines) do not compress the fuel, but rather compress only air and then inject fuel into the air which was heated by compression. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, which is ignited at the end of the compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower octane numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking.

text: An

text: octane

text: rating

text: or

text: octane

text: number

text: is

text: standard

text: measure

text: of

text: the

text: performance

text: of

text: an

text: engine

text: or

text: aviation

text: fuel

text: The

text: higher

text: the

text: octane

text: number

text: the

text: more

text: compression

text: the

text: fuel

text: can

text: withstand

text: before

text: detonating

text: igniting

text: In

text: broad

text: terms

text: fuels

text: with

text: higher

text: octane

text: rating

text: are

text: used

text: in

text: high

text: performance

text: gasoline

text: engines

text: that

text: require

text: higher

text: compression

text: ratios

text: In

text: contrast

text: fuels

text: with

text: lower

text: octane

text: numbers

text: but

text: higher

text: cetane

text: numbers

text: are

text: ideal

text: for

text: diesel

text: engines

text: because

text: diesel

text: engines

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: as

text: compression

text: ignition

text: engines

text: do

text: not

text: compress

text: the

text: fuel

text: but

text: rather

text: compress

text: only

text: air

text: and

text: then

text: inject

text: fuel

text: into

text: the

text: air

text: which

text: was

text: heated

text: by

text: compression

text: Gasoline

text: engines

text: rely

text: on

text: ignition

text: of

text: air

text: and

text: fuel

text: compressed

text: together

text: as

text: mixture

text: which

text: is

text: ignited

text: at

text: the

text: end

text: of

text: the

text: compression

text: stroke

text: using

text: spark

text: plugs

text: Therefore

text: high

text: compressibility

text: of

text: the

text: fuel

text: matters

text: mainly

text: for

text: gasoline

text: engines

text: Use

text: of

text: gasoline

text: with

text: lower

text: octane

text: numbers

text: may

text: lead

text: to

text: the

text: problem

text: of

text: engine

text: knocking

text: Cetane number, Cetane rating or CN is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and compression needed for ignition. It is an inverse of the similar octane rating for gasoline. The CN is an important factor in determining the quality of diesel fuel, but not the only one; other measurements of diesel's quality include (but are not limited to) energy content, density, lubricity, cold-flow properties and sulphur content.

text: Cetane

text: number

text: Cetane

text: rating

text: or

text: CN

text: is

text: an

text: indicator

text: of

text: the

text: combustion

text: speed

text: of

text: diesel

text: fuel

text: and

text: compression

text: needed

text: for

text: ignition

text: It

text: is

text: an

text: inverse

text: of

text: the

text: similar

text: octane

text: rating

text: for

text: gasoline

text: The

text: CN

text: is

text: an

text: important

text: factor

text: in

text: determining

text: the

text: quality

text: of

text: diesel

text: fuel

text: but

text: not

text: the

text: only

text: one

text: other

text: measurements

text: of

text: diesel

text: 's

text: quality

text: include

text: but

text: are

text: not

text: limited

text: to

text: energy

text: content

text: density

text: lubricity

text: cold

text: flow

text: properties

text: and

text: sulphur

text: content

text: Ethane (or ) is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula CH. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. Like many hydrocarbons, ethane is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas and as a petrochemical byproduct of petroleum refining. Its chief use is as feedstock for ethylene production.

text: Ethane

text: or

text: is

text: an

text: organic

text: chemical

text: compound

text: with

text: chemical

text: formula

text: CH

text: At

text: standard

text: temperature

text: and

text: pressure

text: ethane

text: is

text: colorless

text: odorless

text: gas

text: Like

text: many

text: hydrocarbons

text: ethane

text: is

text: isolated

text: on

text: an

text: industrial

text: scale

text: from

text: natural

text: gas

text: and

text: as

text: petrochemical

text: byproduct

text: of

text: petroleum

text: refining

text: Its

text: chief

text: use

text: is

text: as

text: feedstock

text: for

text: ethylene

text: production

text: Combustion or burning is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242 kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):

text: Combustion

text: or

text: burning

text: is

text: high

text: temperature

text: exothermic

text: redox

text: chemical

text: reaction

text: between

text: fuel

text: the

text: reductant

text: and

text: an

text: oxidant

text: usually

text: atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: that

text: produces

text: oxidized

text: often

text: gaseous

text: products

text: in

text: mixture

text: termed

text: as

text: smoke

text: Combustion

text: in

text: fire

text: produces

text: flame

text: and

text: the

text: heat

text: produced

text: can

text: make

text: combustion

text: self

text: sustaining

text: Combustion

text: is

text: often

text: complicated

text: sequence

text: of

text: elementary

text: radical

text: reactions

text: Solid

text: fuels

text: such

text: as

text: wood

text: first

text: undergo

text: endothermic

text: pyrolysis

text: to

text: produce

text: gaseous

text: fuels

text: whose

text: combustion

text: then

text: supplies

text: the

text: heat

text: required

text: to

text: produce

text: more

text: of

text: them

text: Combustion

text: is

text: often

text: hot

text: enough

text: that

text: light

text: in

text: the

text: form

text: of

text: either

text: glowing

text: or

text: flame

text: is

text: produced

text: simple

text: example

text: can

text: be

text: seen

text: in

text: the

text: combustion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: into

text: water

text: vapor

text: reaction

text: commonly

text: used

text: to

text: fuel

text: rocket

text: engines

text: This

text: reaction

text: releases

text: kJ

text: mol

text: of

text: heat

text: and

text: reduces

text: the

text: enthalpy

text: accordingly

text: at

text: constant

text: temperature

text: and

text: pressure

text: Carbon (from "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalentmaking four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. Three isotopes occur naturally, C and C being stable, while C is a radioactive isotope, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.

text: Carbon

text: from

text: coal

text: is

text: chemical

text: element

text: with

text: symbol

text: and

text: atomic

text: number

text: It

text: is

text: nonmetallic

text: and

text: tetravalentmaking

text: four

text: electrons

text: available

text: to

text: form

text: covalent

text: chemical

text: bonds

text: Three

text: isotopes

text: occur

text: naturally

text: and

text: being

text: stable

text: while

text: is

text: radioactive

text: isotope

text: decaying

text: with

text: half

text: life

text: of

text: about

text: years

text: Carbon

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: few

text: elements

text: known

text: since

text: antiquity

text: Octane is a hydrocarbon and an alkane with the chemical formula CH, and the condensed structural formula CH(CH)CH. Octane has many structural isomers that differ by the amount and location of branching in the carbon chain. One of these isomers, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) is used as one of the standard values in the octane rating scale.

text: Octane

text: is

text: hydrocarbon

text: and

text: an

text: alkane

text: with

text: the

text: chemical

text: formula

text: CH

text: and

text: the

text: condensed

text: structural

text: formula

text: CH(CH)CH

text: Octane

text: has

text: many

text: structural

text: isomers

text: that

text: differ

text: by

text: the

text: amount

text: and

text: location

text: of

text: branching

text: in

text: the

text: carbon

text: chain

text: One

text: of

text: these

text: isomers

text: isooctane

text: is

text: used

text: as

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: standard

text: values

text: in

text: the

text: octane

text: rating

text: scale

text: An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of central importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry.

text: An

text: organic

text: compound

text: is

text: virtually

text: any

text: chemical

text: compound

text: that

text: contains

text: carbon

text: although

text: consensus

text: definition

text: remains

text: elusive

text: and

text: likely

text: arbitrary

text: Organic

text: compounds

text: are

text: rare

text: terrestrially

text: but

text: of

text: central

text: importance

text: because

text: all

text: known

text: life

text: is

text: based

text: on

text: organic

text: compounds

text: The

text: most

text: basic

text: petrochemicals

text: are

text: considered

text: the

text: building

text: blocks

text: of

text: organic

text: chemistry

text: The diesel engine (correctly known as a compression-ignition or CI engine) is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber is caused by the high temperature which a gas achieves (i.e. the air) when greatly compressed (adiabatic compression). Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to petrol), which use a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. In compression-ignition engines, glow plugs (combustion chamber pre-warmers) may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, or both. The original compression-ignition engine operates on the "constant pressure" cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock.

text: The

text: diesel

text: engine

text: correctly

text: known

text: as

text: compression

text: ignition

text: or

text: CI

text: engine

text: is

text: an

text: internal

text: combustion

text: engine

text: in

text: which

text: ignition

text: of

text: the

text: fuel

text: that

text: has

text: been

text: injected

text: into

text: the

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: is

text: caused

text: by

text: the

text: high

text: temperature

text: which

text: gas

text: achieves

text: i.e.

text: the

text: air

text: when

text: greatly

text: compressed

text: adiabatic

text: compression

text: Diesel

text: engines

text: work

text: by

text: compressing

text: only

text: the

text: air

text: This

text: increases

text: the

text: air

text: temperature

text: inside

text: the

text: cylinder

text: to

text: such

text: high

text: degree

text: that

text: it

text: ignites

text: atomised

text: diesel

text: fuel

text: that

text: is

text: injected

text: into

text: the

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: This

text: contrasts

text: with

text: spark

text: ignition

text: engines

text: such

text: as

text: petrol

text: engine

text: gasoline

text: engine

text: or

text: gas

text: engine

text: using

text: gaseous

text: fuel

text: as

text: opposed

text: to

text: petrol

text: which

text: use

text: spark

text: plug

text: to

text: ignite

text: an

text: air

text: fuel

text: mixture

text: In

text: compression

text: ignition

text: engines

text: glow

text: plugs

text: combustion

text: chamber

text: pre

text: warmers

text: may

text: be

text: used

text: to

text: aid

text: starting

text: in

text: cold

text: weather

text: or

text: when

text: the

text: engine

text: uses

text: lower

text: compression

text: ratio

text: or

text: both

text: The

text: original

text: compression

text: ignition

text: engine

text: operates

text: on

text: the

text: constant

text: pressure

text: cycle

text: of

text: gradual

text: combustion

text: and

text: produces

text: no

text: audible

text: knock

text: A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term "molecule" is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions.

text: molecule

text: is

text: an

text: electrically

text: neutral

text: group

text: of

text: two

text: or

text: more

text: atoms

text: held

text: together

text: by

text: chemical

text: bonds

text: Molecules

text: are

text: distinguished

text: from

text: ions

text: by

text: their

text: lack

text: of

text: electrical

text: charge

text: However

text: in

text: quantum

text: physics

text: organic

text: chemistry

text: and

text: biochemistry

text: the

text: term

text: molecule

text: is

text: often

text: used

text: less

text: strictly

text: also

text: being

text: applied

text: to

text: polyatomic

text: ions

text:
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls.
Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons.

text: In

text: organic

text: chemistry

text: hydrocarbon

text: is

text: an

text: organic

text: compound

text: consisting

text: entirely

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: and

text: thus

text: are

text: group

text: hydrides

text: Hydrocarbons

text: from

text: which

text: one

text: hydrogen

text: atom

text: has

text: been

text: removed

text: are

text: functional

text: groups

text: called

text: hydrocarbyls

text: Aromatic

text: hydrocarbons

text: arenes

text: alkanes

text: alkenes

text: cycloalkanes

text: and

text: alkyne

text: based

text: compounds

text: are

text: different

text: types

text: of

text: hydrocarbons

text: The connectivity of a molecule often has a strong influence on its physical and chemical properties and behavior. Two molecules composed of the same numbers of the same types of atoms (i.e. a pair of isomers) might have completely different chemical and/or physical properties if the atoms are connected differently or in different positions. In such cases, a structural formula is useful, as it illustrates which atoms are bonded to which other ones. From the connectivity, it is often possible to deduce the approximate shape of the molecule.

text: The

text: connectivity

text: of

text: molecule

text: often

text: has

text: strong

text: influence

text: on

text: its

text: physical

text: and

text: chemical

text: properties

text: and

text: behavior

text: Two

text: molecules

text: composed

text: of

text: the

text: same

text: numbers

text: of

text: the

text: same

text: types

text: of

text: atoms

text: i.e.

text: pair

text: of

text: isomers

text: might

text: have

text: completely

text: different

text: chemical

text: and/or

text: physical

text: properties

text: if

text: the

text: atoms

text: are

text: connected

text: differently

text: or

text: in

text: different

text: positions

text: In

text: such

text: cases

text: structural

text: formula

text: is

text: useful

text: as

text: it

text: illustrates

text: which

text: atoms

text: are

text: bonded

text: to

text: which

text: other

text: ones

text: From

text: the

text: connectivity

text: it

text: is

text: often

text: possible

text: to

text: deduce

text: the

text: approximate

text: shape

text: of

text: the

text: molecule

text: North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.

text: North

text: America

text: is

text: continent

text: entirely

text: within

text: the

text: Northern

text: Hemisphere

text: and

text: almost

text: all

text: within

text: the

text: Western

text: Hemisphere

text: It

text: can

text: also

text: be

text: considered

text: northern

text: subcontinent

text: of

text: the

text: Americas

text: It

text: is

text: bordered

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: by

text: the

text: Arctic

text: Ocean

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: by

text: the

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: and

text: south

text: by

text: the

text: Pacific

text: Ocean

text: and

text: to

text: the

text: southeast

text: by

text: South

text: America

text: and

text: the

text: Caribbean

text: Sea

text: Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions, separating chemical compounds by their boiling point by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of the compound will vaporize. It uses distillation to fractionate. Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, a simple distillation is typically used.

text: Fractional

text: distillation

text: is

text: the

text: separation

text: of

text: mixture

text: into

text: its

text: component

text: parts

text: or

text: fractions

text: separating

text: chemical

text: compounds

text: by

text: their

text: boiling

text: point

text: by

text: heating

text: them

text: to

text: temperature

text: at

text: which

text: one

text: or

text: more

text: fractions

text: of

text: the

text: compound

text: will

text: vaporize

text: It

text: uses

text: distillation

text: to

text: fractionate

text: Generally

text: the

text: component

text: parts

text: have

text: boiling

text: points

text: that

text: differ

text: by

text: less

text: than

text: from

text: each

text: other

text: under

text: pressure

text: of

text: one

text: atmosphere

text: If

text: the

text: difference

text: in

text: boiling

text: points

text: is

text: greater

text: than

text: simple

text: distillation

text: is

text: typically

text: used

text: Petroleum (from : "rock" + "oleum": "oil". ) is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation.

text: Petroleum

text: from

text: rock

text: oleum

text: oil

text: is

text: naturally

text: occurring

text: yellow

text: to

text: black

text: liquid

text: found

text: in

text: geological

text: formations

text: beneath

text: the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: surface

text: which

text: is

text: commonly

text: refined

text: into

text: various

text: types

text: of

text: fuels

text: Components

text: of

text: petroleum

text: are

text: separated

text: using

text: technique

text: called

text: fractional

text: distillation

text: An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion; pneumatic motors use compressed air and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and eventually motion.

text: An

text: engine

text: or

text: motor

text: is

text: machine

text: designed

text: to

text: convert

text: one

text: form

text: of

text: energy

text: into

text: mechanical

text: energy

text: Heat

text: engines

text: burn

text: fuel

text: to

text: create

text: heat

text: which

text: then

text: creates

text: force

text: Electric

text: motors

text: convert

text: electrical

text: energy

text: into

text: mechanical

text: motion

text: pneumatic

text: motors

text: use

text: compressed

text: air

text: and

text: clockwork

text: motors

text: in

text: wind

text: up

text: toys

text: use

text: elastic

text: energy

text: In

text: biological

text: systems

text: molecular

text: motors

text: like

text: myosins

text: in

text: muscles

text: use

text: chemical

text: energy

text: to

text: create

text: forces

text: and

text: eventually

text: motion

text: An isomer (from Greek , isomerès; isos = "equal", méros = "part") is a molecule with the same molecular formula as another molecule, but with a different chemical structure. That is, isomers contain the same number of atoms of each element, but have different arrangements of their atoms. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties, unless they also have the same functional groups. There are two main forms of isomerism (or ): structural isomerism (or constitutional isomerism) and stereoisomerism (or spatial isomerism).

text: An

text: isomer

text: from

text: Greek

text: isomerès

text: isos

text: equal

text: méros

text: part

text: is

text: molecule

text: with

text: the

text: same

text: molecular

text: formula

text: as

text: another

text: molecule

text: but

text: with

text: different

text: chemical

text: structure

text: That

text: is

text: isomers

text: contain

text: the

text: same

text: number

text: of

text: atoms

text: of

text: each

text: element

text: but

text: have

text: different

text: arrangements

text: of

text: their

text: atoms

text: Isomers

text: do

text: not

text: necessarily

text: share

text: similar

text: properties

text: unless

text: they

text: also

text: have

text: the

text: same

text: functional

text: groups

text: There

text: are

text: two

text: main

text: forms

text: of

text: isomerism

text: or

text: structural

text: isomerism

text: or

text: constitutional

text: isomerism

text: and

text: stereoisomerism

text: or

text: spatial

text: isomerism

text: Organic chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e., matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms. Study of structure includes many physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical composition and the chemical constitution of organic compounds and materials. Study of properties includes both physical properties and chemical properties, and uses similar methods as well as methods to evaluate chemical reactivity, with the aim to understand the behavior of the organic matter in its pure form (when possible), but also in solutions, mixtures, and fabricated forms. The study of organic reactions includes probing their scope through use in preparation of target compounds (e.g., natural products, drugs, polymers, etc.) by chemical synthesis, as well as the focused study of the reactivities of individual organic molecules, both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study.

text: Organic

text: chemistry

text: is

text: chemistry

text: subdiscipline

text: involving

text: the

text: scientific

text: study

text: of

text: the

text: structure

text: properties

text: and

text: reactions

text: of

text: organic

text: compounds

text: and

text: organic

text: materials

text: i.e.

text: matter

text: in

text: its

text: various

text: forms

text: that

text: contain

text: carbon

text: atoms

text: Study

text: of

text: structure

text: includes

text: many

text: physical

text: and

text: chemical

text: methods

text: to

text: determine

text: the

text: chemical

text: composition

text: and

text: the

text: chemical

text: constitution

text: of

text: organic

text: compounds

text: and

text: materials

text: Study

text: of

text: properties

text: includes

text: both

text: physical

text: properties

text: and

text: chemical

text: properties

text: and

text: uses

text: similar

text: methods

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: methods

text: to

text: evaluate

text: chemical

text: reactivity

text: with

text: the

text: aim

text: to

text: understand

text: the

text: behavior

text: of

text: the

text: organic

text: matter

text: in

text: its

text: pure

text: form

text: when

text: possible

text: but

text: also

text: in

text: solutions

text: mixtures

text: and

text: fabricated

text: forms

text: The

text: study

text: of

text: organic

text: reactions

text: includes

text: probing

text: their

text: scope

text: through

text: use

text: in

text: preparation

text: of

text: target

text: compounds

text: e.g.

text: natural

text: products

text: drugs

text: polymers

text: etc

text: by

text: chemical

text: synthesis

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: the

text: focused

text: study

text: of

text: the

text: reactivities

text: of

text: individual

text: organic

text: molecules

text: both

text: in

text: the

text: laboratory

text: and

text: via

text: theoretical

text: in

text: silico

text: study

text: An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are very small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten-billionth of a meter, in the short scale).

text: An

text: atom

text: is

text: the

text: smallest

text: constituent

text: unit

text: of

text: ordinary

text: matter

text: that

text: has

text: the

text: properties

text: of

text: chemical

text: element

text: Every

text: solid

text: liquid

text: gas

text: and

text: plasma

text: is

text: composed

text: of

text: neutral

text: or

text: ionized

text: atoms

text: Atoms

text: are

text: very

text: small

text: typical

text: sizes

text: are

text: around

text: picometers

text: ten

text: billionth

text: of

text: meter

text: in

text: the

text: short

text: scale

text: Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With an atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed "protium" (name rarely used, symbol H), has one proton and no neutrons.

text: Hydrogen

text: is

text: chemical

text: element

text: with

text: chemical

text: symbol

text: and

text: atomic

text: number

text: With

text: an

text: atomic

text: weight

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: is

text: the

text: lightest

text: element

text: on

text: the

text: periodic

text: table

text: Its

text: monatomic

text: form

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: abundant

text: chemical

text: substance

text: in

text: the

text: Universe

text: constituting

text: roughly

text: of

text: all

text: baryonic

text: mass

text: Non

text: remnant

text: stars

text: are

text: mainly

text: composed

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: in

text: the

text: plasma

text: state

text: The

text: most

text: common

text: isotope

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: termed

text: protium

text: name

text: rarely

text: used

text: symbol

text: has

text: one

text: proton

text: and

text: no

text: neutrons

question: has_part heptane

answer: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon

text: carbon


text: Hertfordshire (often abbreviated Herts) is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region.

text: Hertfordshire

text: often

text: abbreviated

text: Herts

text: is

text: county

text: in

text: southern

text: England

text: bordered

text: by

text: Bedfordshire

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: Cambridgeshire

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: east

text: Essex

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: Buckinghamshire

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: and

text: Greater

text: London

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: For

text: government

text: statistical

text: purposes

text: it

text: is

text: placed

text: in

text: the

text: East

text: of

text: England

text: region

text: Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west, East Sussex to the south west, and Essex across the Thames Estuary to the north. The county town is Maidstone.

text: Kent

text: is

text: county

text: in

text: South

text: East

text: England

text: and

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: home

text: counties

text: It

text: borders

text: Greater

text: London

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: west

text: Surrey

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: East

text: Sussex

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: west

text: and

text: Essex

text: across

text: the

text: Thames

text: Estuary

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: The

text: county

text: town

text: is

text: Maidstone

text: Great Britain, also known as Britain , is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , Great Britain is the largest European island and the ninth-largest in the world. In 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the world's third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, and together these islands, along with over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands, comprise the British Isles archipelago.

text: Great

text: Britain

text: also

text: known

text: as

text: Britain

text: is

text: large

text: island

text: in

text: the

text: north

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: off

text: the

text: northwest

text: coast

text: of

text: continental

text: Europe

text: With

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: is

text: the

text: largest

text: European

text: island

text: and

text: the

text: ninth

text: largest

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: In

text: the

text: island

text: had

text: population

text: of

text: about

text: million

text: people

text: making

text: it

text: the

text: world

text: 's

text: third

text: most

text: populous

text: island

text: after

text: Java

text: in

text: Indonesia

text: and

text: Honshu

text: in

text: Japan

text: The

text: island

text: of

text: Ireland

text: is

text: situated

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: of

text: it

text: and

text: together

text: these

text: islands

text: along

text: with

text: over

text: smaller

text: surrounding

text: islands

text: comprise

text: the

text: British

text: Isles

text: archipelago

text: The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is an automated light metro system opened in 1987 to serve the redeveloped Docklands area of London. It reaches north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to and in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal.

text: The

text: Docklands

text: Light

text: Railway

text: DLR

text: is

text: an

text: automated

text: light

text: metro

text: system

text: opened

text: in

text: to

text: serve

text: the

text: redeveloped

text: Docklands

text: area

text: of

text: London

text: It

text: reaches

text: north

text: to

text: Stratford

text: south

text: to

text: Lewisham

text: west

text: to

text: and

text: in

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: financial

text: district

text: and

text: east

text: to

text: Beckton

text: London

text: City

text: Airport

text: and

text: Woolwich

text: Arsenal

text: Beckton is an urban neighbourhood in east London, England and part of the London Borough of Newham. It is located east of Charing Cross. It was unpopulated marshland adjacent to the River Thames until the development of major industrial infrastructure to support the growing metropolis of London was built in the 19th century. Housing was created in Beckton for workers of the gas and sewage works. Between 1981 and 1995 it was within the London Docklands Development Corporation area which caused the population to increase as new homes were built and the Docklands Light Railway was constructed.

text: Beckton

text: is

text: an

text: urban

text: neighbourhood

text: in

text: east

text: London

text: England

text: and

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Newham

text: It

text: is

text: located

text: east

text: of

text: Charing

text: Cross

text: It

text: was

text: unpopulated

text: marshland

text: adjacent

text: to

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: until

text: the

text: development

text: of

text: major

text: industrial

text: infrastructure

text: to

text: support

text: the

text: growing

text: metropolis

text: of

text: London

text: was

text: built

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: Housing

text: was

text: created

text: in

text: Beckton

text: for

text: workers

text: of

text: the

text: gas

text: and

text: sewage

text: works

text: Between

text: and

text: it

text: was

text: within

text: the

text: London

text: Docklands

text: Development

text: Corporation

text: area

text: which

text: caused

text: the

text: population

text: to

text: increase

text: as

text: new

text: homes

text: were

text: built

text: and

text: the

text: Docklands

text: Light

text: Railway

text: was

text: constructed

text: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, it includes the island of Great Britain (the name of which is also loosely applied to the whole country), the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign statethe Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to its east, the English Channel to its south and the Celtic Sea to its south-south-west, giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland. With an area of , the UK is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants. Together, this makes it the fourth most densely populated country in the European Union.

text: The

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: and

text: Northern

text: Ireland

text: commonly

text: known

text: as

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: UK

text: or

text: Britain

text: is

text: sovereign

text: country

text: in

text: western

text: Europe

text: Lying

text: off

text: the

text: north

text: western

text: coast

text: of

text: the

text: European

text: mainland

text: it

text: includes

text: the

text: island

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: the

text: name

text: of

text: which

text: is

text: also

text: loosely

text: applied

text: to

text: the

text: whole

text: country

text: the

text: north

text: eastern

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: island

text: of

text: Ireland

text: and

text: many

text: smaller

text: islands

text: Northern

text: Ireland

text: is

text: the

text: only

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: UK

text: that

text: shares

text: land

text: border

text: with

text: another

text: sovereign

text: statethe

text: Republic

text: of

text: Ireland

text: Apart

text: from

text: this

text: land

text: border

text: the

text: UK

text: is

text: surrounded

text: by

text: the

text: Atlantic

text: Ocean

text: with

text: the

text: North

text: Sea

text: to

text: its

text: east

text: the

text: English

text: Channel

text: to

text: its

text: south

text: and

text: the

text: Celtic

text: Sea

text: to

text: its

text: south

text: south

text: west

text: giving

text: it

text: the

text: longest

text: coastline

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: The

text: Irish

text: Sea

text: lies

text: between

text: Great

text: Britain

text: and

text: Ireland

text: With

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: the

text: UK

text: is

text: the

text: largest

text: sovereign

text: state

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: and

text: the

text: largest

text: in

text: Europe

text: It

text: is

text: also

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: country

text: with

text: an

text: estimated

text: million

text: inhabitants

text: Together

text: this

text: makes

text: it

text: the

text: fourth

text: most

text: densely

text: populated

text: country

text: in

text: the

text: European

text: Union

text: The London Assembly is an elected body, part of the Greater London Authority, that scrutinises the activities of the Mayor of London and has the power, with a two-thirds majority, to amend the Mayor's annual budget and to reject the Mayor's draft statutory strategies. The assembly was established in 2000 and meets at City Hall on the South Bank of the River Thames, close to Tower Bridge. The assembly is also able to investigate other issues of importance to Londoners (transport, environmental matters, etc.), publish its findings and recommendations, and make proposals to the Mayor.

text: The

text: London

text: Assembly

text: is

text: an

text: elected

text: body

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: Greater

text: London

text: Authority

text: that

text: scrutinises

text: the

text: activities

text: of

text: the

text: Mayor

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: has

text: the

text: power

text: with

text: two

text: thirds

text: majority

text: to

text: amend

text: the

text: Mayor

text: 's

text: annual

text: budget

text: and

text: to

text: reject

text: the

text: Mayor

text: 's

text: draft

text: statutory

text: strategies

text: The

text: assembly

text: was

text: established

text: in

text: and

text: meets

text: at

text: City

text: Hall

text: on

text: the

text: South

text: Bank

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: close

text: to

text: Tower

text: Bridge

text: The

text: assembly

text: is

text: also

text: able

text: to

text: investigate

text: other

text: issues

text: of

text: importance

text: to

text: Londoners

text: transport

text: environmental

text: matters

text: etc

text: publish

text: its

text: findings

text: and

text: recommendations

text: and

text: make

text: proposals

text: to

text: the

text: Mayor

text: London City Airport is an international airport in London. It is located in the Royal Docks in the London Borough of Newham, approximately east of the City of London and a shorter distance east of Canary Wharf. These are the twin centres of London's financial industry, which is a major user of the airport. The airport was developed by the engineering company Mowlem in 198687 and is currently owned by a consortium of Alberta Investment Management Corporation (AIMCo), OMERS, the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan and Wren House Infrastructure Management of the Kuwait Investment Authority.

text: London

text: City

text: Airport

text: is

text: an

text: international

text: airport

text: in

text: London

text: It

text: is

text: located

text: in

text: the

text: Royal

text: Docks

text: in

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Newham

text: approximately

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: shorter

text: distance

text: east

text: of

text: Canary

text: Wharf

text: These

text: are

text: the

text: twin

text: centres

text: of

text: London

text: 's

text: financial

text: industry

text: which

text: is

text: major

text: user

text: of

text: the

text: airport

text: The

text: airport

text: was

text: developed

text: by

text: the

text: engineering

text: company

text: Mowlem

text: in

text: and

text: is

text: currently

text: owned

text: by

text: consortium

text: of

text: Alberta

text: Investment

text: Management

text: Corporation

text: AIMCo

text: OMERS

text: the

text: Ontario

text: Teachers

text: Pension

text: Plan

text: and

text: Wren

text: House

text: Infrastructure

text: Management

text: of

text: the

text: Kuwait

text: Investment

text: Authority

text: Londinium was a settlement established on the current site of the City of London around  43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century.

text: Londinium

text: was

text: settlement

text: established

text: on

text: the

text: current

text: site

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: around

text: Its

text: bridge

text: over

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: turned

text: the

text: city

text: into

text: road

text: nexus

text: and

text: major

text: port

text: serving

text: as

text: major

text: commercial

text: centre

text: in

text: Roman

text: Britain

text: until

text: its

text: abandonment

text: during

text: the

text: century

text: England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain (which lies in the North Atlantic) in its centre and south; and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight.

text: England

text: is

text: country

text: that

text: is

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: It

text: shares

text: land

text: borders

text: with

text: Scotland

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: and

text: Wales

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: The

text: Irish

text: Sea

text: lies

text: northwest

text: of

text: England

text: and

text: the

text: Celtic

text: Sea

text: lies

text: to

text: the

text: southwest

text: England

text: is

text: separated

text: from

text: continental

text: Europe

text: by

text: the

text: North

text: Sea

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: and

text: the

text: English

text: Channel

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: The

text: country

text: covers

text: five

text: eighths

text: of

text: the

text: island

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: which

text: lies

text: in

text: the

text: North

text: Atlantic

text: in

text: its

text: centre

text: and

text: south

text: and

text: includes

text: over

text: smaller

text: islands

text: such

text: as

text: the

text: Isles

text: of

text: Scilly

text: and

text: the

text: Isle

text: of

text: Wight

text: The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of , and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.

text: The

text: European

text: Union

text: EU

text: is

text: political

text: and

text: economic

text: union

text: of

text: member

text: states

text: that

text: are

text: located

text: primarily

text: in

text: Europe

text: It

text: has

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: and

text: an

text: estimated

text: population

text: of

text: over

text: million

text: The

text: EU

text: has

text: developed

text: an

text: internal

text: single

text: market

text: through

text: standardised

text: system

text: of

text: laws

text: that

text: apply

text: in

text: all

text: member

text: states

text: EU

text: policies

text: aim

text: to

text: ensure

text: the

text: free

text: movement

text: of

text: people

text: goods

text: services

text: and

text: capital

text: within

text: the

text: internal

text: market

text: enact

text: legislation

text: in

text: justice

text: and

text: home

text: affairs

text: and

text: maintain

text: common

text: policies

text: on

text: trade

text: agriculture

text: fisheries

text: and

text: regional

text: development

text: Within

text: the

text: Schengen

text: Area

text: passport

text: controls

text: have

text: been

text: abolished

text: monetary

text: union

text: was

text: established

text: in

text: and

text: came

text: into

text: full

text: force

text: in

text: and

text: is

text: composed

text: of

text: EU

text: member

text: states

text: which

text: use

text: the

text: euro

text: currency

text: Lewisham is an area in south-east London, England, in the London Borough of Lewisham, centred south-east of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. As a major centre, Lewisham had a population of 95,041 in 2011. It is an important transport hub for South London, and is one of the borough's largest settlements. Lewisham has the largest Police Station in Europe which was moved to the Town Centre from Ladywell Road and rebuilt where the shopping centres department store once stood. There were plans to replace the department store to where the Riverdale Leisure Centre was based adjacent to Boots store when the Mayor was elected.

text: Lewisham

text: is

text: an

text: area

text: in

text: south

text: east

text: London

text: England

text: in

text: the

text: London

text: Borough

text: of

text: Lewisham

text: centred

text: south

text: east

text: of

text: Charing

text: Cross

text: The

text: area

text: is

text: identified

text: in

text: the

text: London

text: Plan

text: as

text: one

text: of

text: major

text: centres

text: in

text: Greater

text: London

text: As

text: major

text: centre

text: Lewisham

text: had

text: population

text: of

text: in

text: It

text: is

text: an

text: important

text: transport

text: hub

text: for

text: South

text: London

text: and

text: is

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: borough

text: 's

text: largest

text: settlements

text: Lewisham

text: has

text: the

text: largest

text: Police

text: Station

text: in

text: Europe

text: which

text: was

text: moved

text: to

text: the

text: Town

text: Centre

text: from

text: Ladywell

text: Road

text: and

text: rebuilt

text: where

text: the

text: shopping

text: centres

text: department

text: store

text: once

text: stood

text: There

text: were

text: plans

text: to

text: replace

text: the

text: department

text: store

text: to

text: where

text: the

text: Riverdale

text: Leisure

text: Centre

text: was

text: based

text: adjacent

text: to

text: Boots

text: store

text: when

text: the

text: Mayor

text: was

text: elected

text: The Mayor of London is an elected politician who, along with the London Assembly of 25 members, is accountable for the strategic government of Greater London. The current mayor is Sadiq Khan, who took up office on 9 May 2016. The position had been held by Ken Livingstone from the creation of the role on 4 May 2000 until he was defeated in 2008 by Boris Johnson, who served two terms before being succeeded by Khan.

text: The

text: Mayor

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: an

text: elected

text: politician

text: who

text: along

text: with

text: the

text: London

text: Assembly

text: of

text: members

text: is

text: accountable

text: for

text: the

text: strategic

text: government

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: The

text: current

text: mayor

text: is

text: Sadiq

text: Khan

text: who

text: took

text: up

text: office

text: on

text: May

text: The

text: position

text: had

text: been

text: held

text: by

text: Ken

text: Livingstone

text: from

text: the

text: creation

text: of

text: the

text: role

text: on

text: May

text: until

text: he

text: was

text: defeated

text: in

text: by

text: Boris

text: Johnson

text: who

text: served

text: two

text: terms

text: before

text: being

text: succeeded

text: by

text: Khan

text: The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, but the agglomeration has since grown far beyond the City's borders. The City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it forms one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London; however, the City of London is not a London borough, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including London's only other city, the City of Westminster).

text: The

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: city

text: and

text: county

text: within

text: London

text: It

text: constituted

text: most

text: of

text: London

text: from

text: its

text: settlement

text: by

text: the

text: Romans

text: in

text: the

text: century

text: AD

text: to

text: the

text: Middle

text: Ages

text: but

text: the

text: agglomeration

text: has

text: since

text: grown

text: far

text: beyond

text: the

text: City

text: 's

text: borders

text: The

text: City

text: is

text: now

text: only

text: tiny

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: metropolis

text: of

text: London

text: though

text: it

text: remains

text: notable

text: part

text: of

text: central

text: London

text: Administratively

text: it

text: forms

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: local

text: authority

text: districts

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: however

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: is

text: not

text: London

text: borough

text: status

text: reserved

text: for

text: the

text: other

text: districts

text: including

text: London

text: 's

text: only

text: other

text: city

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: Westminster

text: Middlesex (abbreviation: Middx) was a county in southeast England that is now mostly part of Greater London, with small sections in neighbouring counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, and existed as an official unit until 1965. The historic county included land stretching north of the River Thames from east to west of the City of London with the rivers Colne and Lea and a ridge of hills as the other boundaries. The largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest by area in 1831.

text: Middlesex

text: abbreviation

text: Middx

text: was

text: county

text: in

text: southeast

text: England

text: that

text: is

text: now

text: mostly

text: part

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: with

text: small

text: sections

text: in

text: neighbouring

text: counties

text: It

text: was

text: established

text: in

text: the

text: Anglo

text: Saxon

text: system

text: from

text: the

text: territory

text: of

text: the

text: Middle

text: Saxons

text: and

text: existed

text: as

text: an

text: official

text: unit

text: until

text: The

text: historic

text: county

text: included

text: land

text: stretching

text: north

text: of

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: from

text: east

text: to

text: west

text: of

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: with

text: the

text: rivers

text: Colne

text: and

text: Lea

text: and

text: ridge

text: of

text: hills

text: as

text: the

text: other

text: boundaries

text: The

text: largely

text: low

text: lying

text: county

text: dominated

text: by

text: clay

text: in

text: its

text: north

text: and

text: alluvium

text: on

text: gravel

text: in

text: its

text: south

text: was

text: the

text: second

text: smallest

text: by

text: area

text: in

text: Surrey is a county in the south east of England and also one of the home counties bordering Greater London. Surrey shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west and Berkshire to the north-west. The county town is Guildford. Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent and Hampshire.

text: Surrey

text: is

text: county

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: east

text: of

text: England

text: and

text: also

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: home

text: counties

text: bordering

text: Greater

text: London

text: Surrey

text: shares

text: borders

text: with

text: Kent

text: to

text: the

text: east

text: East

text: Sussex

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: east

text: West

text: Sussex

text: to

text: the

text: south

text: Hampshire

text: to

text: the

text: west

text: and

text: south

text: west

text: and

text: Berkshire

text: to

text: the

text: north

text: west

text: The

text: county

text: town

text: is

text: Guildford

text: Surrey

text: County

text: Council

text: sits

text: extraterritorially

text: at

text: Kingston

text: upon

text: Thames

text: administered

text: as

text: part

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

text: since

text: With

text: resident

text: population

text: of

text: million

text: Surrey

text: is

text: the

text: most

text: densely

text: populated

text: and

text: third

text: most

text: populated

text: county

text: in

text: the

text: South

text: East

text: region

text: after

text: Kent

text: and

text: Hampshire

text: London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom, as well as the most populous city proper in the European Union. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it "Londinium". London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which today largely makes up Greater London, governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.

text: London

text: is

text: the

text: capital

text: and

text: most

text: populous

text: city

text: of

text: England

text: and

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: the

text: most

text: populous

text: city

text: proper

text: in

text: the

text: European

text: Union

text: Standing

text: on

text: the

text: River

text: Thames

text: in

text: the

text: south

text: east

text: of

text: the

text: island

text: of

text: Great

text: Britain

text: London

text: has

text: been

text: major

text: settlement

text: for

text: two

text: millennia

text: It

text: was

text: founded

text: by

text: the

text: Romans

text: who

text: named

text: it

text: Londinium

text: London

text: 's

text: ancient

text: core

text: the

text: City

text: of

text: London

text: largely

text: retains

text: its

text: medieval

text: boundaries

text: Since

text: at

text: least

text: the

text: century

text: London

text: has

text: also

text: referred

text: to

text: the

text: metropolis

text: around

text: this

text: core

text: historically

text: split

text: between

text: Middlesex

text: Essex

text: Surrey

text: Kent

text: and

text: Hertfordshire

text: which

text: today

text: largely

text: makes

text: up

text: Greater

text: London

text: governed

text: by

text: the

text: Mayor

text: of

text: London

text: and

text: the

text: London

text: Assembly

text: Beckton is the eastern terminus of the Beckton branch of the Docklands Light Railway ( DLR ) in the Docklands area of east London . It is in Travelcard Zone 3 . The DLR branch from Poplar was opened on 28 March 1994 . The next station is Gallions Reach , but between the two stations the line curves through 180 degrees , such that westbound trains for Central London depart Beckton heading east . Beckton station is actually located north of , and slightly further west than , Cyprus , the station after Gallions Reach . During peak hours , trains from Beckton usually depart for Tower Gateway , although there are occasional departures to Bank . Off - peak , trains tend to alternate between Tower Gateway and Stratford International . The Beckton branch of the DLR is unusual , in that it has more frequent trains off - peak than it does during peak hours . This is because during peak hours , all trains coming from Stratford International go to Woolwich Arsenal instead . Beckton DLR depot , the principal depot for the DLR system , is located between Beckton and Gallions Reach stations , but is actually closer to the latter . Like all open - air DLR stations , Beckton is unmanned and tickets are bought at the ticket machines . New machines were installed in January 2009 that now allow Oyster card users to top - up their pre-pay balance and see their journey history . During 2007 -- 2008 , a new bus station was constructed directly opposite the DLR station . This opened in the first week of November 2008 .

text: Beckton

text: is

text: the

text: eastern

text: terminus

text: of

text: the

text: Beckton

text: branch

text: of

text: the

text: Docklands

text: Light

text: Railway

text: DLR

text: in

text: the

text: Docklands

text: area

text: of

text: east

text: London

text: It

text: is

text: in

text: Travelcard

text: Zone

text: The

text: DLR

text: branch

text: from

text: Poplar

text: was

text: opened

text: on

text: March

text: The

text: next

text: station

text: is

text: Gallions

text: Reach

text: but

text: between

text: the

text: two

text: stations

text: the

text: line

text: curves

text: through

text: degrees

text: such

text: that

text: westbound

text: trains

text: for

text: Central

text: London

text: depart

text: Beckton

text: heading

text: east

text: Beckton

text: station

text: is

text: actually

text: located

text: north

text: of

text: and

text: slightly

text: further

text: west

text: than

text: Cyprus

text: the

text: station

text: after

text: Gallions

text: Reach

text: During

text: peak

text: hours

text: trains

text: from

text: Beckton

text: usually

text: depart

text: for

text: Tower

text: Gateway

text: although

text: there

text: are

text: occasional

text: departures

text: to

text: Bank

text: Off

text: peak

text: trains

text: tend

text: to

text: alternate

text: between

text: Tower

text: Gateway

text: and

text: Stratford

text: International

text: The

text: Beckton

text: branch

text: of

text: the

text: DLR

text: is

text: unusual

text: in

text: that

text: it

text: has

text: more

text: frequent

text: trains

text: off

text: peak

text: than

text: it

text: does

text: during

text: peak

text: hours

text: This

text: is

text: because

text: during

text: peak

text: hours

text: all

text: trains

text: coming

text: from

text: Stratford

text: International

text: go

text: to

text: Woolwich

text: Arsenal

text: instead

text: Beckton

text: DLR

text: depot

text: the

text: principal

text: depot

text: for

text: the

text: DLR

text: system

text: is

text: located

text: between

text: Beckton

text: and

text: Gallions

text: Reach

text: stations

text: but

text: is

text: actually

text: closer

text: to

text: the

text: latter

text: Like

text: all

text: open

text: air

text: DLR

text: stations

text: Beckton

text: is

text: unmanned

text: and

text: tickets

text: are

text: bought

text: at

text: the

text: ticket

text: machines

text: New

text: machines

text: were

text: installed

text: in

text: January

text: that

text: now

text: allow

text: Oyster

text: card

text: users

text: to

text: top

text: up

text: their

text: pre

text: pay

text: balance

text: and

text: see

text: their

text: journey

text: history

text: During

text: new

text: bus

text: station

text: was

text: constructed

text: directly

text: opposite

text: the

text: DLR

text: station

text: This

text: opened

text: in

text: the

text: first

text: week

text: of

text: November

text: The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second longest in the United Kingdom, after the River Severn. It also flows through Oxford (where it is called Isis), Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its long tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary. The Thames drains the whole of Greater London.

text: The

text: River

text: Thames

text: is

text: river

text: that

text: flows

text: through

text: southern

text: England

text: At

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: longest

text: river

text: entirely

text: in

text: England

text: and

text: the

text: second

text: longest

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: Kingdom

text: after

text: the

text: River

text: Severn

text: It

text: also

text: flows

text: through

text: Oxford

text: where

text: it

text: is

text: called

text: Isis

text: Reading

text: Henley

text: on

text: Thames

text: and

text: Windsor

text: The

text: lower

text: reaches

text: of

text: the

text: river

text: are

text: called

text: the

text: Tideway

text: derived

text: from

text: its

text: long

text: tidal

text: reach

text: up

text: to

text: Teddington

text: Lock

text: It

text: rises

text: at

text: Thames

text: Head

text: in

text: Gloucestershire

text: and

text: flows

text: into

text: the

text: North

text: Sea

text: via

text: the

text: Thames

text: Estuary

text: The

text: Thames

text: drains

text: the

text: whole

text: of

text: Greater

text: London

annotations: likely multiple

annotations: follows multiple

question: located_in_the_administrative_territorial_entity beckton dlr station

answer: london borough of newham

text: london borough of newham

text: london borough of newham